Contents
Executive Board Approves
Awards
Geometry and Early Masonry
In Memoriam
Freemasonry and Religion
Biblical ORIGINS
Solicitation - A Solution
The Rite of Circumambulation
Something To Think About
Masonry and Mathematics
Origins and
Correct Usages of The Sign of Fidelity
Jerry Marsengill, FPS, Editor
401 Masonic Temple, 1011 Locust St.
Des Moines, IA 50309 (515) 244-2540
OFFICERS
Jerry Marsengill, FPS President
401 Masonic Temple, 1011 Locust St.
Des Moines, IA 50309 (515) 244-2540
John Mauk Hilliard, FPS. 1st Vice President
Lehman College
Bronx, New York 10468 (212) 960-8363
Wallace E. McLeod, FPS 2nd Vice President
Victoria College University of Toronto
73 Queen's Park Crescent
Toronto, Ontario Canada M5S 1 K7
Allen E. Roberts, FPS. Executive Secretary
Drawer 70, 110 Quince Ave.
Highland Springs, VA 23075 (804) 737-4498
Henry G. Law, FPS Treasurer
2508 E. Riding Dr.
Wilmington, DE 19808 (302) 737-9083
Harold L. Davidson, MPS Librarian
The Philalethes Society 1903 10th St. W.
Billings, MT 59102 (406) 259-1552
LIVING PAST PRESIDENTS
Philalethes Society
William R. Denslow
Robert V. Osborne, FPS
Eugene S. Hopp, FPS
Dwight L. Smith, FPS
Robert L. Dillard Jr. FPS
Bruce H. Hunt, FPS
Allen E. Roberts, FPS
John R. Nocas, FPS
EXECUTIVE SECRETARY EMERITUS
Carl R. Greaten, FPS
S. Brent Morris, FPS
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CONTENTS
Executive Board Approves Awards
The Society Celebrates Its 60th Year in Richmond, Virginia
The 60th Anniversary Party of The International Philalethes Society Oct. 1, 1988
Geometry and Early Masonry
In Memoriam Edward J. Franta FPS
Freemasonry and Religion
Biblical Origins
The Lexical Puzzle of the "Due Guard"
Solicitation - A Solution
The Rite of Circumambulation
Something To Think About
Masonry and Mathematics
The Origins and Correct Usages of The Sign of Fidelity
Through Masonic Windows
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ON THE COVER
Our cover this month shows the lowa State Capitol reflected in the windows of the Henry Asgard Wallace memorial office building. The building is named for Brother Wallace, who was Secretary of Agriculture, Secretary of Commerce and Vice-President in the 1930's and 1940's. Brother Wallace was serving as Senior Deacon of Capital Lodge No. 110 of Des Moines when Brother Franklin D. Roosevelt called him to Washington to serve as Secretary of Agriculture.
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Executive Board Approves Awards
The Executive Board of The Philalethes Society approved the presentation of a Distinguished Service Medal four years ago. The criteria for its award is stringent and many workers in Freemasonry are deserving of special recognition. So there is now an Award of Merit.
The Award of Merit of The Philalethes Society is a colorful piece of jewelry that will be worn proudly. It cannot be purchased by any individual. It can only be authorized for presentation by Chapters of The Philalethes Society, the International President, or the Executive Board. Although there is no limit to the number that may be presented, only those who work for Freemasonry and their communities will be considered as recipients. Awardees need not be limited to Freemasons alone.
There are many Freemasons working for the Craft where there are no Chapters of the Society. The Executive Board wants to know about them. Any member of the Society may nominate anyone for one of these awards. Simply send the Executive Secretary or International President a brief summary (biography) of the individual. The Board will take it from there.
This award, with a second bar, will be presented each year to the writer of the best article appearing in The Philalethes magazine. The same will be awarded to the Annual Guest Lecturer. Others may be authorized only by the Executive Board. The Distinguished Service Medal will remain the ultimate award by the Society for outstanding service to Freemasonry.
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The Society Celebrates Its 60th Year in Richmond, Virginia
One of the greatest days in the history of The Philalethes Society will be celebrated in the capitol of the old Confederate States of American - Richmond, Virginia. It will take place in the Holiday Inn Airport, Sandston, Virginia, on October 1, 1988.
The events of the day and evening will be short on speeches, looong on discussion and FUN. Virginia Chapter of The Philalethes Society is the sponsor. The cost for everything (but rooms) is only $25 each. The Society and Chapter will subsidize the difference. There will be mementos for everyone; many will leave with valuable prizes - including one for the brightest shirt worn during the Forum (the day-long work" session).
The hotel has given the Society a special rate of $49 per day per room. Reservations for the Assembly-Feast Forum should be made through Charles Sarbaugh, 1330 Traway Dr., Richmond, VA 23235 (see the June issue). These must be limited to the first 200. Here's what's planned:
The 60-Year Memento
Pictured is the 60-year memento that everyone attending the semi-annual Assembly-Feast-Forum in Richmond, Virginia, on October 1, 1988 will receive. The same will be given to all attending the Annual Assembly-Feast-Forum in Washington, D.C., on February 18, 1989. These colorful mementos may be purchased by others for $5.45 (including postage) each while they last. It has a clutch pin for the men; a loop for a charm or neckpiece for the ladies. These may be ordered from the Executive Secretary.
Other colorful Society Jewelry available: Bolo (lariat) ties - $8.00; 4 inch embroidered patch - $4.00; Key ring - $4.00; Money clip - $5.00; Lapel pin - $3.50.
To help make the 60th year of The Philalethes Society something to be remembered, there will be several awards and prizes for those attending both events. Plans are underway for the procurement of exclusive "firing glasses" (or "cannons") for the toasts which the participants may keep as souvenirs.
Virginia Chapter of the Philalethes Society Presents
THE 69TH ANNIVERSARY PARTY OF THE INTERNATIONAL PHILALETHES SOCIETY
September 30
7-9 p.m. - Registration
8-10 p.m. - Hospitality
October 1
8-9 a.m. - Registration
9:00 - Invocation
Welcome: Keith A. Hinerman
President, Virginia Chapter
9:10 - Talk: Jerry Marsengill Int'l President
9:20 - Discussion
9:45 - Talk: Wallace McLeod, Int'l Vice President
9:55 - Discussion
10:10 - Coffee Break
10:30 - "A Lodge of Confusion" Babcock Players
10:50 - Discussion
11:05 - Jerry Harmon: "Public and International Relations"
11:15 - Discussion
11:35 - Panel of Int'l officers:
Open questions
1 1:55 - Lunch
Speaker: Richard H. Sands, PGM, Michigan
1:15 p.m. - Debate: "Freemasonry Must Answer Its Critics"
1 :45 - Discussion
2:05 - Henry G. Law, Int'l Treasurer
2:15 - Discussion
2:45 - Talk: Allen E. Roberts, Executive Secretary
2:55 - Discussion
3:30 - Adjourn
6-7 p.m. - Hospitality
7:00 - Feast; toasts; speaker, Lloyd U. Jefferson, PGM, VA
Awards, prizes, mementos
9-10 - Hospitality
Good night and Farewell.
Thank You for participating.
Ladies Program
October 1: 9 a.m.; Tours of choice:
Richmond; Williamsburg; other
Ladies will enjoy hospitality with their men; and participate in the Feast, toasts, awards, prizes, and mementos.
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by Barteld Gout, MPS
"Furthermore Vitruvius explains the advantages the experienced master builder will gain from the knowledge of geometry. He writes that "the art of geometry" will be of great importance, and will be beneficial and extremely relevant to him. Primarily, the master builder should learn the use of the compasses, the straight edge and the plumb. The knowledge of how to use these instruments is of the utmost importance, because all drawings and designs, especially the floorplans, start with straight as well as curved lines.
The compasses are first. They have a most important feature: when drawing a circle with them, the circumference of that circle is six times as large as the opening between the legs of the compasses, meaning that half of the diameter of each circle divides the circumference of that circle in exactly six equal parts. Many think that this instrument, because he used it so much and studied it so energetically, was invented by the famous Dedalus, who also was said to have first used all the other working tools. However, the invention of the straight edge, the plumb, the square and the level Is attributed to Theodorus of Samos.
Let us not discuss who invented these tools. They all have their foundation In geometry and they are the necessary tools of this art. The master builder can not work without them, just as all artists have to use them day in and day out, as the picture clearly shows."
The above text is from the 16th Century book "Vitruvius-Teutsch" by Gualther Rivius. Only a few copies from this in 1548 published book are in existence today. One of these copies is in the possession of the Masonic Library of the Netherlands. This book is in a remarkable good shape and is probably the only complete publication left in the entire world.
Rivius (originally Walther Reiff) was a physician who lived in Nurnberg (Germany) and who was greatly interested in Architecture. He translated the Vitruvius publication of 1521 by Cesare Cesariano in German and he also added his own comments to the translation. The original text by the Roman Architect Marcus Vitruvius Pollio was commissioned by Emperor Augustus in 25 B.C. This "First Vitruvius" was the most important book from the Ancients about Architecture and has been rewritten several times and comments were added. It had a major influence on construction during the Middle Ages.
In 1415 a complete manuscript of the Vitruvius Publication from the 9th Century was discovered. This book became one of the most printed books after the invention of the art of printing at the end of the 15th Century. Only the Bible had more publications. Since 1500, translations from Latin in several languages were started, adding comments to the original. One third of the Vitrovius-Teutsch consists of the translation of the original text and two-thirds of annotations from the 13th through the 15th Century, thus giving us an important source for studying late-medieval construction methods.
Rivius was known as an important Humanitarian and especially the influences of Platonism and Pythagorism got his interest, of which he made extensive comments, wherever they appeared in the text of the Vitruvius.
The picture of the "Compasses, Plumb and all normal Geometric Instruments" was already published by Rivius a year earlier in his own book "Von der Geometrische Messung" ("Concerning Geometrical Measuring") in which he explained the principles of Geodesy and Building-Geometry. The instruments shown are thus partly geodetic, as is the large level (center-bottom in picture 1). However the geometrical elements in Geodesy and Architecture are not separated but blend into each other.
It is remarkable that for Centuries these Instruments did basically not change. Only during the latter part of the 19th Century different designs emerged. For instance the Level now uses an air-bubble within a small curved glass tube filled with a liquid.
The picture also shows the medieval "Level" (top left). No liquid is used; it is a combination of a vertical Plumb and a horizontal Triangle. The symbolism of this instrument is fundamentally different from the modern Level: proofing of horizontals could only be done if the vertical plumb was in place!
Interesting are the three books in the picture. Of the two closed books, one is laying down and the other is standing on top of it. In medieval symbolism horizontal means material (earthly), while vertical means immaterial (spiritual), but here it should also be looked upon as forming esthetically. These books contain all the knowledge necessary to understand the technique of the building construction as well as the esthetic part of it. In the opened book (bottom right) we clearly see a circle, a square and two equilateral triangles. These are the symbols of the geometrical knowledge of the Quadrangular and Triangular Systems. The pentagon is missing, because the knowledge of its construction was taught only to some very knowledgeable master builders! These books were always present at the construction shed (lodge) and were kept in a special box and only a few of the builders were allowed to use them. This box was always locked and only the principal master builder was in possession of the key and was responsible for the books. This secrecy might have been the cause that almost all of these books have disappeared. The Roman Church suspected these books to be based on the theories of Pythagoras and the Inquisition started to search for them since the 15th Century. Many of the books were burned publicly, sometimes together with the writings of Plato and later those of Aristotle too.
The only medieval "Bauhuttenbuch" (construction-lodge book) left is the one written by Villard de Honnecourt during the second half of the 13th Century. Unfortunately a large part of this book has disappeared, but the remaining 33 pieces of parchment give us a very good insight of how such a book must have looked. Not only Villard himself, who was an experienced master builder, worked on the book, but later users added drawings and comments to it.
The French Freemasonry thought this book to be of such an importance, that they named their Lodge for Masonic Studies (the equivalent of the English Quatuor Coronati) the "Villard-de-Honnecourt" Lodge!
Geometry During The Medieval Ages
One would wonder how the knowledge of Geometry had been preserved from the Ancient Greek into the Middle Ages. Especially when we realize that in Western Europe, after the fall of the Roman Empire in the fourth Century, the Goths, the Huns and later the Vikings, while plundering and burning down whole villages were the cause that almost all cultural values disappeared. However, some publications from the Ancients were hidden in several Monasteries and probably even more important was the culture of the Islam, whose scholars had translated, edited and annotated the heritage of the Greek Philosophers.
More than three Centuries before the Islam started its conquest of Southern Europe, Augustinus, who lived from 354 until 430, was the Bishop of Hippo in Northern Africa during the last period of the Roman Empire and he was a great admirer and follower of Platonism and Pythagorism. Already during this time the struggle starts between Christianity, which in 325 was declared the national religion of the Roman Empire, and the religions of the ancients with their mixture of old science and religion and who were declared to be paganism.
Augustinus himself was a convert, but he had such influence, that he was able to save the Greek heritage from extermination. Since 396, in his diocese in the small African town, he studied and changed that heritage in such a way that it became acceptable for Christianity. He was a level-headed and logical man and he wrote his comments on the theories of Plato and Pythagoras without any romantic fanaticism. These comments showed his love for music and architecture and his great effort to reconcile the knowledge of the Ancients with that of Christianity. In this way he wrote in "The Musica" about the theory of the number-relationship from Pythagoras and in it he declared that without the predominance of the numbers and their relationship the universe would become a chaos. He wrote in detail about the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 (the so called tetracyts). Augustine related the Old-Testament statement "Thou has arranged everything according to measurement, number and weight" to the theory of Pythagoras.
Immediately after his death a flood of anti-Augustinus literature originated within the Church, showing really fear for the influences of the pagan philosophies. The church itself had difficulties in its struggle with the pagan polytheism, but came dangerously close to that itself with its discussions about the Trinity belief. The distinguished and learned Roman Boethius, who lived from 480-525, was educated in Athens, Greece. It was he who continued the studies of Augustinus. Because he was imprisoned for many years at the end of his life, he was able to leave us an enormous amount of literature which compliments the works of his teacher. Until well in the 12th Century, the most important literature keeping alive the knowledge of Greek Philosophy in Western Europe were the works of Augustinus and Boethius. But in the 11th Century another source for this knowledge started to be available from Southern Spain. At that time the world of Islam started to teach Greek Philosophy at the Universities of Cordoba, Sevilla, Granada and in the early years also at Toledo. Although the Church of Rome was since the middle of the 11th Century seriously involved in the "Reconquista" (the recapture of Spain, which was not completed until 1492), clergymen from France regularly "slipped through the lines" on their way to those Universities, eager to expand their knowledge of the Greek Philosophers.
In order to accommodate them, the Islamic Universities in the 12th Century started, besides in Arabic, even teaching in Latin. It is evident that this was going to have a strong influence on the Christian way of thinking. French Episcopal Schools, as the one in Chartres were directed by such Arab Philosophers as Avicennes (980-1036), who was a well educated physician, Averroes, who died in 1138 and the Jewish-Arab Avicebron (1020-1070). Their teachings were cause of the revival of Platonism and later also of the acceptance of Aristotle's theories.
The school of Chartres was established in 990 by the very energetic Bishop Fulbertus, who made it into the most intellectual of Western Europe before he died in 1028. Fulbertus was a pupil of Gerbert who had shown a great mathematical knowledge in his writings. Gerbert published a book named "Geometry" which had been of great importance to the School of Chartres. He also wrote comments about the books of Boethius, "The Musica" (Music) and "The Arithmetica" (Arithmetic). In 990 Gerbert was elected Pope and took the name Sylvester II. Before he had been Archbishop of Reims (France) and Ravenna (Italy).
In the 11th Century, the Timaios by Plato started to be an important object of studies and was the source of the so called Neo-Platonism, which reached the top of its importance in the School of Chartres in the 12th Century, under its Leader, (from 1114 until 1124), Bernard de Chartres. Bernard even went that far that he declared the Timaios of equal importance as the Bible and wanted it to be part of the Bible. His successors, Thierry de Chartres (until 1150) and Bernard de Moelan followed in Bernard's steps, but in the 13th Century the influence of Neo-Platonism started to diminish in favor of a Neo-Aristotelism.
In the mean time however, Rome started to fight more seriously against this "heresy" and in about 1200 a complete war had broken out in Southern France against the Cathares, Albigenses and Waldenses. France and Rome at that time became completely at odds with each other regarding religious thinking and this finally resulted in a schism, with a Pope in Rome and an Anti-Pope in France! During this time, writings start to appear in France dealing with the Trinity belief. These writings were really a continuation of the thoughts expressed in Plato's Timaios and compared the person-unity of Father-Son-Holy Ghost with a principle-unity: Sagasse, Puissance and third Volonte or Bonte. The first two could be translated as Wisdom and Strength. The third one as "Benevolence" or "Goodness". This last one is a little bit difficult to rhyme with the modern Masonic trio.
Guillaume de Conches (1080-1145), by building on the thoughts of the brilliant Abelard (1079-1142), elaborates on this Trinity-theme, resulting in exceptional interesting literature. Abelard taught initially at the Episcopal School of Paris, and before long, he became there the most important adversary of the theatrical, splendor loving Abbot Suger and of Bernard de Clairvaux. After his love affair with Heloise, Abelard was removed from the philosophical-theological scene and others developed his ideas further. Later we will return to the theme of the medieval Trinity-idea.
Geometry in the Gothic Cathedral
Reading the minutes of, for instance, the architectural conferences held in Milan (Northern Italy) in 1391, the importance of the use of Geometry in the Gothic architecture becomes very evident. The construction of the Dome of Milan had been started in 1386, more than a century later than the start of the cathedral of Beauvais (France), which was the last of the great French Cathedrals and which was never completed.
During the construction of the Dome in Milan difficulties arose in 1391 about the geometrical principles of the design. It was decided to invite to Milan, experts from France and Germany. The minutes of the discussions between them and their Italian colleagues are preserved and studying them brings two important points to the surface.
First, the use of geometry was accepted as an unequivocal requirement by the start of the designs for the floorplan, cross-sections and details. A large part of this decision was influenced by the publications of the 13th Century architect Villard the Honnecourt, whose books still today play an important role. The most difficult question was how and where Geometry was going to be used. For instance: should in a certain case the square be relevant as the geometrical figure or should it be the equilateral triangle. In other words: should in certain cases the Quadrangular or the Triangular System be used? The Quadrangular System had already served as the starting-point for the floorplan of the Dome and thus designated the foundations for the outside walls and the columns.
The second point of the Milan documents is more interesting because here it shows how the participants in the discussions tried to reach an agreement about the spiritual backgrounds of the use of geometrical structures. The minutes of the agitated meeting show serious differences of opinion between the French Jean Mignot and the Italian Architects. The last ones tried to degrade the use of Geometry to mainly a technical convenience. Mignot remarked bitterly that their opinion attacked the foundation of Geometry and that they through their argumenting obviously considered art and technical knowledge as two different entities. He then quotes the famous statement: "Ars Sine Scienta Nihil Est" (Art without science is nothing.)
Although at the end of the 14th century "Art" and "Science" had a different meaning than today, it is clear what the basis was for the disagreement: is geometry to be regarded as an aid for the designing and constructing of buildings with or without a symbolic purpose? We have to realize here that art, when serving religion, always had to express religious conceptions, art had to be the symbol of a religious way of thinking as prescribed by the Clergy.
The "1' art pour 1' art" (art for itself) of the 19th century was completely unthinkable in the medieval ages, as it was unthinkable during the 4000 years before that! In ancient Egypt as well as in Greece, art always had been the instrument for expressing the religious philosophical way of thinking.
After long and heated discussion the opponents of Mignot finally agreed to accept his views and it was concluded that the technical construction and the aesthetic beauty of a building were not two opposing values, but that they were based on the same principles: "The Perfection Of The Geometrical Form-Language."
With this statement it was once more affirmed what Augustinus, almost 1000 years earlier had established about music and architecture in his book "De Musica". Boethius (also in "De Musica") elaborated further on it and in the School of Chartres in the 11th, 12th and 13th century it was taught as Neo-Platonism and Pythagorism. However soon after the work for the construction of the Dome of Milan was resumed, it was halted again in the 15th century. Perhaps it was purely because of financial difficulties that the Dome, as we know it now, was not finished until the end of the 19th century. However it is also possible that the work was halted for a different reason: around the city of Florence (N-Italy) so called Platonic Academies were organized. These Academies taught Pythagorism for the studies of numbers and geometrical forms and because of their humanistic viewpoint became opponents of the Church of Rome.
Geometry In The "Old Manuscripts" And In Freemasonry Of The 18th Century
In the old Masonic manuscripts which were preserved in England, geometry always was of great importance. The oldest of them, dating from the 14th and 15th century, even do not distinguish between the words "Geometry" and "Masonry", they are regarded as each others synonyms.
Looking for instance, as an example, at the Regius Poem, which dates from around 1390 and probably is a copy from an even earlier manuscript from the middle of the 14th century. The first sentences read as follows: "Hic Incipiunt Constituciones Artis Gemetria Secundum Euclydem", meaning: "Here, according to Euclid, the constitutions of the art of geometry start".
In the second chapter we read:
In that time, through good geometry,
This honest craft of good Masonry
Was ordained and made in this manner,
Counterfeited of these clerks together;
At these Lords' prayers they counterfeited geometry,
And gave it the name of Masonry,
For the most honest craft of all.
These Lords' children thereto did fall,
To learn of him the craft of geometry,
The which he made full curiously'.
(translation in "modern" English by R.H. Baxter, Past Master of Quatuor Coronati Lodge in England)
"Counterfeited", which today has a mainly negative meaning of "copied" or even "falsify" has here to be translated as "the contents of it were adopted" or "the knowledge derived from." We should not always read "Freemasonry" where in the 14th and 15th century is written "Masonry". In the operative period "Masonry" and "Freemasonry" were not in every way identical. The word "Clerk" in the poem means probably "Clergyman", although in medieval England the name "clerk of the work" had the meaning of "overseer of the constructions"!
In Chapter 46 of the Regius Poem it is indicated that the Entered Apprentice has to go up seven steps of knowledge. The first three of the trivium (the three lower ones of the liberal arts and sciences): grammatica, dialectica and rhetorica (grammar, dialectics and rhetoric). After this the steps of the quadrivium (the four higher ones of the liberal arts and sciences) have to be climbed: Music, Astronomy, Arithmetic and finally Geometry, the last and most difficult. It is then said that Geometry is the only science able to separate falsifications from real knowledge.
Finally, the importance of geometry for the apprentice is once more underlined.
"By old time written I find
That the apprentice should be of gentle kind
And so sometime great Lords' blood
Took this geometry that is full of good".
However, nowhere in any of the 64 Chapters of the Regius Poem can we find details of this geometrical knowledge! It is clear that the entire poem was meant for "Operative (Free) Masons, whose trades were the building construction and related occupations.
In the Cooke-manuscript, dating from about the same time as the Regius Poem, the importance of geometry for the (free)-Mason also is emphasized over and over again. A difference with the Regius Poem is about the place geometry occupies in the row of the seven liberal arts and sciences. In the Regius-manuscript geometry is the last one and the most difficult one. Only the experienced master (builder) was required to be proficient in it entirely. However the Cooke-manuscript shows a different sequence:
1. Grammatica: the knowledge of the word ("In the beginning there was the word")
2. Rhetorica: the knowledge of expressing our thoughts in correct words.
3. Dialectica: learn how to distinguish between truth and falsehood.
4. Arithmetic: the knowledge of numbers necessary to make calculations.
5. Geometry: the knowledge of the structure of things according to size, number and weight. This regards the strength and power, the "work-sphere" of the companions.
6. Music: the knowledge of the laws of sound and the systems of notes, in which the conception of Beauty already is clearly defined.
7. Astronomy: the knowledge of the framework of the universe and of the motions of the sun, moon, planets and stars. Astronomy is the highest domain of the Master, who has to know about the Harmony of Beauty.
The merging of the operative and speculative elements becomes already very clear when reading the Harleian Manuscript which dates from around 1650. In it the emphasis has clearly changed to the "speculative" part and building is no longer reality but already a symbol. When Anderson, in 1723, wrote his Constitutions, a rather large part of imaginative legends took the place of responsible history writings, although some smaller parts appear to be realistic.
It would be interesting to try to find out how much contact there has been between Anderson and Sir Christopher Wren, who died in 1723, ninety years old. It would be interesting to know how much Freemasonry, in the beginning of the 18th century, in England had been influenced by the publications of Wren, especially during the last 20 years of his life. Wren, a real "operative" Mason, was a Professor in Mathematics and Astronomy and after the great fire of London in 1666 he was appointed to be in charge of the rebuilding of this city. As a practicing architect he had built St. Pauls Cathedral. Although it is not entirely clear what functions Wren had in Freemasonry during the last years of the 17th century, many researchers are convinced that it was a very important one. Especially the combination mathematics-astronomy-architecture does surmise that a study of the life of Wren might reveal very interesting Masonic information. For a long time he was Master of one of the oldest Lodges (now the Lodge of Antiquity no. 2) and Anderson mentioned him several times in his Constitutions. While still alive Wren was already regarded as "The greatest genius in England after Shakespeare".
One of the most remarkable details of Andersons Constitutions is the picture of the theorem of Pythagoras (or the 47th thesis by Euclid) right in the center of the front page! It is hard to believe that Anderson himself understood the meaning of it since his trade was so entirely different. We assume that the draftsman of the picture had received orders to draw it from somebody else or he did copy it from an old original that does not exist anymore. The same title page was used by Anderson for his next publication from 1738, however here he adds a foreword to it:
"Pythagoras was not only the leader of a new religion, but also of an Academy or Lodge of perfect Geometry in which he explained the secrets of this science. This remarkable theorem of Pythagoras, which is the foundation of all of Freemasonry, but also of all the materials in their dimensions when used for building-construction, is regarded by Freemasons as his own invention". (freely translated)
Meanwhile we know with almost certainty that Pythagoras lived from about 580-500 B.C. and had spent quite some time in Egypt and Chaldea (at the Persian Gulf). Probably he received there an education for priesthood. In 529 B.C. he founded his famous school in Crotona (South Italy). His widely acclaimed theorum was already known for a thousand years in ancient Egypt by the so called harpodenaptes (land surveyors). Plutarch (a Greek biographer from 46-120 A.D.) in his descriptions of the Greek religion calls it one of the necessary fundamentals for it. It is interesting to know that the theorum of Pythagoras is the jewel of the English Past Master. The harmony-laws in music were also taught by Pythagoras with the aid of a string instrument which was already known in Egypt: the pitch of the tone was determined by the length of the string and the ratio between two strings formed the well known third, quart etc. There has always been a close relation between the laws of music and architecture.
In the English ritual of 1730, geometry was still important. The following dialogue took place during the Questions and Answers:
Question: Why was you made a Mason?
Answer: For the sake of the Letter G.
Question: What does it signifye?
Answer: Geometry.
Question: Why Geometry?
Answer: Because it is the Root and Foundation of all Arts and Sciences.
In most English Lodges, the letter G can still be found in the center of the ceiling, but while, during the 18th and mainly the 19th century, speculative Freemasonry removed itself more and more from the knowledge of its operative predecessors, Geometry became less and less important and the letter G became a kind of "deal letter", which had been significant in the past only.
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Edward J. Franta, FPS
by H.A. Ohrt, MPS
Edward John Franta, Fellow of the Philalethes Society, was born at Lidgerwood ND March 20, 1906 and died at Langdon, ND February 25, 1988, age 81 years.
Edward entered the University of North Dakota in 1923 and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Journalism, 1927. He was a member of Sigma Delta Chi, national professional journalism fraternity and of Kappa Sigma Fraternity. The University honored him with the Alumni Association's "Sioux Award" in 1970 and the University of North Dakota's "President Award" in 1975.
After brief employment on newspapers at Rolla, ND and at Pampa, Texas, he entered employment on the Cavalier County Republican Newspaper at Langdon, ND. In 1969, he and a partner sold the newspaper but Ed continued to "help out" until 1984. The citizens of Langdon thought of him as their local historian and he was to be the Honorary Grand Marshal during a centennial Parade scheduled in June, 1988.
Ed and Jennie Louise Kelland of Langdon were married in 1930. She died in August, 1987. They had three children.
Brother Ed Franta was raised a Master Mason, at Lidgerwood ND, May, 1928, transferring to Lebanon Lodge No. 34 in December of the same year. He became Worshipful Master, 1934, District Deputy Grand Master, 1935-43 and at the age of 46, became Grand Master of Masons of North Dakota, 1953.
He held many offices in the A.A.S.R. and was coroneted 33 degree, 1947. He also held membership in all the bodies of the York Rite and in 1941 was knighted in St. Felix Conclave No. 45, Red Cross of Constantine of Fargo. He presided at Reigning Sovereign, 1949.
In 1948, he joined Kem Temple A.A.O.N.M.S., at Grand Forks, ND, was Associate Patron of O.E.S., 1943 and was a member of the Royal Order of Scotland, Province of Manitoba.
Most Worshipful Brother Ed was highly respected in all Masonic Organizations and his opinion was eagerly sought on many occasions.
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by George A. Burns, MPS
When we were made Masons, we were given some working tools and we were invested with a leather apron. We were told that we were now equipped to go forth and earn a master's wages and to perform the work of a Mason. I would like to talk about the tools, the wages and the work of a Mason.
A Mason is invested with many Working Tools, and there are times when we need every one of them. However, I am going to direct your attention to three, the Three Great Lights of Masonry, the Square, Compass, and the Holy Bible. The need to emphasize the quality of life has never been greater in the history of our country. Recently Vice President George Bush addressed the graduating class of the Naval Academy. He congratulated them on their achievements and said he hoped this class would not only reflect academic excellence but more importantly that their lives would reflect the motto of the Naval Academy: Duty, Honor, Country. Quality of life is a prime concern of Freemasonry. We are invested with the Square and the Compass. They are like the motto of Masonry. They stand for virtue and morality, friendship and brotherly love. They are the badge each Mason wears with honor. They tell you the kind of man he is and the kind of life he lives.
The chief tool of a Mason and his guide in life is the Holy Bible. The Holy Bible is the Great Light of Masonry. It has center focus in our Lodge Room, and in our ritual, and our important teachings are based on it. Of course Masons respect the religious beliefs of others. Some men may read different volumes and call God by a different name, but we are all praying to the one God and Father of all, and we are all struggling every day to build His Kingdom. The Right Worshipful and Reverend Joseph Fort Newton said,
"The Bible...is seen by Masonry as a symbol of that eternal Book of the Will of God which Lowell described in those memorable lines:
'Slowly the Bible of the race is writ
And not on paper leaves nor leaves of stone, Each age, each kindred, adds a verse to it:
Texts of despair or hope, of joy or moan’."
At Initiation, every candidate is led to the altar where he asks for Divine guidance. On that occasion many lodges present the candidate with a personal inscribed copy of the Holy Bible charging him to study it carefully, for it is the foundation of a righteous life. All of us received a Holy Bible from the Consistory. This fine Masonic Bible shows the scriptural background for every degree in Masonry. The Bible is the Mason's chief tool. It is the basis for the religious and moral life to which all Masons are called. This is what Masonry is all about. This is the reason for its existence. Masonry has no other function.
Let us paraphrase some of the prayers we use in lodge. In God's Name we assemble and meet together and we humbly beseech God to bless all our undertakings. For each new candidate of Freemasonry we pray that he may dedicate his life to God's service and become a true and faithful brother among us. And when we go forth into the world, we pray that we will practice out of the lodge those principles of religion and morality we are taught within it.
The Wages of a Mason are explained in various ways in several degrees of both the York and Scottish Rite. The Mark Master Degree of the York Rite is largely concerned with a Mason's wages. It uses the familiar parable of the Kingdom of Heaven found in the twentieth chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel. It states that a householder hired laborers for his vineyard. They agreed for a penny a day for their wages. He then hired additional workers at the third, sixth and ninth hours. He even hired a few workers just one hour before closing time. At the end of the day he gave each worker a penny. Those hired at the beginning of the day complained, but the householder said, "You agreed to work for a penny, take your wages and go." Now this parable was not intended to be a treatise on economics. Inflation has almost done away with the penny, but even at the time of Christ, workers saw that paying the same wage for vastly different amounts of work was simply unfair. But Christ wasn't talking about ordinary workers. He was talking about workers in the Kingdom of God, and we Masons are part of that happy group. We are laborers in the vineyard of God's Kingdom and any earthly reward we may receive pales in comparison with the rewards we receive from God.
A Mason's wages are the joy he receives from loving and serving God and being a brother to his fellow man. A Mason doesn't try to see how much he can get, but how much of himself he can give. The lives of all Masons illustrate this joy of giving. Let me tell you about two Masonic friends of mine in Jacksonville, Florida. If they were here they would be embarrased for they are very self-effacing. They are Ray O'Dwyer and Richard Jones and both are members of Morocco Temple. They are active in every project the Shrine sponsors to help crippled children. Everything they do is undertaken with a joy and enthusiasm that infects all of us. You have heard the saying, "I wouldn't do that for a million dollars." Well, they would tell you they would not do what they do for a million dollars, or even five million. They do it because they love to help people. If you go to Jacksonville, be sure to visit Morocco Temple. It is just being completed. Inside the entrance of this magnificent building you will be impressed with the spacious ceramic tile foyer. Ray and Richard donated many hours after work and weekends to lay this tile. Everytime I enter the Temple, I do so with a sense of respect and appreciation for their hard work and the sacrifices they made. They received no monetary reward, but they did receive a Master's wages, the joy of helping others. Every day Masons perform acts of charity; most of them not as well known as the Shrine Hospitals. Many are known only to the giver, to the one who receives and to God. For our Masonic ritual teaches us in the words of Scripture:
"While we have time, let us do good unto all men:
And especially unto them that are of the household of faith."
The work that a Mason performs is the work of the Lord. The Eighteenth Degree of the Scottish Rite echoes the words of St. Paul in I Corinthians 15:58,
"Therefore my beloved brethren, be ye steadfast, unmovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, for as much as ye know that your labor is not in vain in the Lord."
Masonry teaches us that every Mason must determine for himself the work God calls him to do. I have always felt that doing the work of the Lord means putting forth your best effort in everything you do and living each day to the glory of God. Seen in that light, even the most humble task we perform has value in God's sight. This point was made by Brother Charles, who was for many years head of a monastic order in the Episcopal Church called the Brothers of St. Barnabas. The brothers operated a home for sick and homeless men and boys near Pittsburgh. Brother Charles told of a time when several young men visited the monastery to try out for the monastic life. One was assigned the task of mowing the lawn. After mowing the grass for a number of hours he came to Brother Charles and said, "I don't see why I must mow the lawn. I came here to the monastery to live a life of prayer." Brother Charles said, "We do live a life of prayer here at the monastery, but we pray while we work." It seems one of the other Novices did pick up the proper spirit. Every morning one of the Brothers would call everyone to morning prayers. He would knock on the door of each cell and say, "Let us bless the Lord." The proper reply was, "Thanks be to God." But when he knocked on the door of one of the Novices and said "Let us bless the Lord", the reply came back, "Wait until I get my pants on."
The work of a Mason is not so much the task that is performed, it is the focus. And the focus of life for a Mason is love of God and love of his neighbor. Because of this focus, Freemasons believe that every man is of equal importance to God. Masons meet on the level. My cousin, the late Charles Lutton, a member of Harrisburg Consistory, and Lieutenant in the Pennsylvania State Police told of a personal experience he had as a young trooper. When Edward Martin became Governor of Pennsylvania, he called in the head of the State Police and said he wanted a list of troopers who were also Masons. From this list the Governor chose all of his guards and drivers. My cousin was one of those so selected. The Governor said to him, "I am a Mason and as I travel over the State, I plan to visit Masonic lodges. When I do, I want my driver to come in Lodge and sit with me." I know of no other place where the lessons of brotherhood are taught more clearly than in Masonic Lodge, a place where the driver can sit beside the Governor. It is a place where social distinctions do not apply for they are brothers all.
Because our focus is on God, we believe with George Washington and our founding fathers that it was with God's help that we won our freedoms and liberties. And we Masons believe that it is only with God's help that our freedoms will be maintained. I am an Eagle Scout and have many happy memories of my Scouting experiences. Those of you who are Scouts will recall with me the Scout Oath which begins, "On my honor I will do my best to do my duty to God and my country..." Imagine my shock when I read in the paper about a year ago of a court case in West Virginia regarding the Boy Scouts. It seems that a Boy Scout, who said he was an atheist, resented saying the Scout Oath. His mother, also an atheist, took the case to court. The jury decided in her favor and the Judge ruled that the Boy Scouts would have to remove the objectionable words from the oath. The Boy Scouts decided instead to keep the same words, but include a notation saying that the word "God" does not refer to the Supreme Being. The boy from the atheist family said that was acceptable to him and that he could now say the oath with a clear conscience. We wondered how the boy could have a conscience when he did not believe in God. Atheism must never be allowed to take over our country. Atheism will destroy organizations like the Boy Scouts. It will destroy our institutions and our morals. Karl Marx said "Religion is the opiate of the people." Atheism is the basic ingredient of Communism. Masonry is God centered, and our witness for God challenges atheism wherever it may be found.
A Mason's focus is on God, but he respects the religious practices of others. Today we see the moral fiber of our country under attack. Military leaders, religious leaders, politicians have all been accused of less than honorable pursuits. Does this mean Americans are loosing their moral values? Probably not. The mere fact that we are outraged by the conduct of these leaders means that we expect more from them. Actually I believe that down the road our main problem will not be the loss of religion and morals. It may very well come from some religious organization or group of moral crusaders who attempt to impose their particular brand of religion on everyone. The editor of the "Wall Street Journal", Robert L. Hartley, spoke on this aspect of ethics when he addressed the graduating class of Babson College in May,
"In 1969, Yale President Kingman Brewster convened a program on the question 'What is happening to morality today?' The great constitutional scholar Alexander Bickel answered him, 'It threatens to engulf us."'
Masonry respects the religious views of others and helps keep our country from being engulfed by religious zealots who would deprive us of our freedom of choice.
This unique contribution of Freemasonry was captured almost a century ago by the Right Reverend Brother Henry C. Potter, Episcopal Bishop of New York when he wrote in 1901:
"Freemasonry, however, is in my view of it a great deal more than a mutual benefit association. In one sense, wild and extravagant as the words may sound, it is the most remarkable and altogether unique institution on earth. Will you tell me of any other that girdles the world with its fellowship and gathers all races and the most ancient religions, as well as our own, into its brotherhood? Will you tell me of any other that is as old or older; more brilliant in its history; more honored in its constituency, more picturesque in its traditions? Today it lies in the hand of modern man largely an unused tool, capable of great achievements for God, for country, for mankind; but doing very little. For one, I believe that circumstances may easily arise when the highest and most sacred of all freedoms being threatened in this land, Freemasonry may be its most powerful defender, unifying all minds and commanding our best citizenship."
We Masons are all builders in the Kingdom of God and we pray that when we finally put down our working tools, we may say with St. Paul, "I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept the faith." Christian, in "Pilgrim's Progress" by John Bunyon said, "I leave my sword and my shield and my courage to those who would come after me. I will keep my scars, for they show the road I have travelled and the battles I have fought." We Masons leave our Masonic teachings and fellowship to all who seek excellence in life. We will take with us our white leather apron and sprig of Acacia for they show the road we have travailed with the many good and worthy brethren who have travelled the same road before us.
Let us all Brothers, rededicate ourselves to our high calling of God in the words of the prayer from the 18th degree of the Scottish Rite:
"We thank Thee, O God our Father, that we are set here amidst a rich brotherhood of kindred spirits, united in a quest for truth and for radiance of the New Law. Here may we commit ourselves to the high tasks which await our hands; to the fulfillment of duties seen in moments of vision; to the building of a nobler life for mankind. Grant unto us, we beseech Thee, the confidence of a valiant faith, the comfort of a reasonable, religious and holy hope, and that spirit of charity for all mankind which is the true bond of fellowship. Amen."
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by John N. Yingling MPS
The Holy Bible is considered by believers to be the work of men writing while inspired by God, and so, has made an overwhelming impact on the cultures of mankind. It has so satisfied the spiritual needs of man that there is little inclination to inquire into the identity of the authors, how the books were collected and who recognized them as authoritative and combined them into a closed canon. When, in the last 200 years, scholars in the disciplines of religion, history, archeology, linguistics and comparative philology collaborated in tracing the origin of ancient writings, they included studies of the Old Testament.
Because the Old Testament, to which the Christians have added the New Testament, and Jews have added interpretations and explanations, is sacred literature, its history required special sensitivity and extra care not to inject partisan views into the conclusions drawn. Among these Jewish, Catholic, Protestant and other scholars, there is a general, though not unanimous, consensus. At least a dominant view has emerged as to the history of the Old Testament. Though Catholic, Protestant and Jewish seminary faculties may disagree on the meaning of the biblical texts, there is enough approval of the methods used in research that the findings of the scholars have become part of the curriculum of many of those seminaries. The research scholars and seminary faculties have written extensively on the subject and their writings can be found in major public libraries. Unfortunately, for precision, these studies require an extended vocabulary, which like medical or computer terms, is not well understood by the general public so the information is "locked up" in scholarly circles.
Away from colleges and seminaries, many believers have different opinions on the information coming to them by recently graduated ministers. Some feel that to inquire at all into biblical origins is impious and arrogant attempt to place oneself above the text. Others feel that the Bible is inerrant, as they received it and reject the sometimes tenuous and conjectural speculations of scientific search. Still others see the Bible's historical and biological writings as an unfolding progressive process and believe that it should be considered as all scientific writings are, that is, either as ancient or modern, while truth unfolds in the process.
Here, presented for your consideration, in the parlance of ordinary conversation, is what I, a non-specialist, perceive to be the "dominant view" of the scholars about Old Testament origins. I recommend that any curious brother go to his own public or seminary library for a more detailed study than is possible in this highly condensed report. In keeping with Masonic tradition, I have tried to stick to scientific reporting, avoiding all interpretation of the texts.
It would be difficult to understand this anthology of Jewish literature without an outline of their history, which can be arbitrarily divided into the following periods, during which the Old Testament was written:
1. The time of the Patriarchs.
2. The sojourn in Egypt, the exodus and desert wanderings.
3. The tribal confederacy in Canaan.
4. The monarchies of Saul, David and Solomon.
5. The divided kingdom; Israel in the North, and Judah in the South.
6. The Assyrian conquest of Israel while Judah remains independent.
7. Babylonian conquest of Judah and the exile of Judean elite in Babylon.
8. Persian Period, during which some of the Judean exiles returned to their homeland.
9. The Greek conquest and Hellenistic rule.
10. Maccabean revolt and Jewish Independence.
Before, and during, the Tribal Confederacy there developed a difference between Jews, (who thought God should be understood by His intervention into the affairs of men) and their neighbors, (who saw in the cyclical forces of nature, the influences of a pantheon of gods). The Jewish view was expressed in their histories of creation, heroic tales, genealogies, convenants, sanctuary liturgies, laws, music and poetry. This view was passed orally from generation to generation. The religious views of non-Jews within their borders, created as great a problem then as it does today. The Canaanites were a civilized people and their religious views were a great enticement to Jewish believers. Some of the Jewish leaders, for political expedience, adjusted their administration to accommodate other near eastern religions. The Bible was written by devoted worshipers of Yahweh, who preached resistance to any accommodation or synthesis with neighboring religions.
It was during the Tribal Confederacy, that the Phoenicians developed their alphabetical script that made the writing of historical events and spiritual concepts easier. At this time, certain books circulated that are mentioned or quoted in the Bible, such as; the Book of Jashar, Wars of Yahweh, Song of Deborah, and Wisdom Literature. These books did not survive.
It was at the time of the monarchies, when writing flourished, that many of the Psalms and Proverbs were written. During the reign of Solomon, an unknown literary genius, called by modern scholars the "Jahwist", wrote his collection of the oral tradition. After the death of Solomon, when his kingdom was divided, an unknown Israelite writer in the north, designated today as the "Elohist", wrote his collection of the oral tradition. After the Assyrian conquest of Israel, this work was taken to Judah and combined with the Jahwist writings. In the north, at the same time, the Book of Deuteronomy was written by the Levite priests, or scribes, in the sanctuary at Shechem. They drew on the oral tradition and on the liturgies of festivals at Shechem and Gilgal. This work also passed to Judah, where it surfaced in the Jerusalem Temple during the reign of King Josiah. When it was proclaimed and published by him, it was the first step toward the creation of an official canon of sacred literature.
During the divided kingdom, great prophets arose, who were dedicated worshipers of Yahweh; Amos and Hosea in the north, and Isaiah and Micah in the south. These, and later prophets, were largely activist preachers and the writings attributed to them, were usually written by their followers. It is difficult to determine when each prophetic book was completed because oracles, which could have been generations later, were interpolated into the authentic works of certain prophets. It is assumed that the prophets formed schools that continued their work. After Israel fell, these prophetic writings also passed to Judah. At this time, in Judah, a group of Levite priests, now called the "Priestly" writers, wrote their version of the oral tradition. When Nebachadnesser conquered Judah, these priests took with them, into exile in Babylon: 1. Their written tradition, 2. The combined "Jahwist Elohist" writings, 3. The Book of Deuteronomy, and, 4. The prophetic writings. In Babylon, the "Priestly" writers combined their own and the Jahwish Elohist writings, edited and brought up to date, thus creating the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers. They added the Book of Deuteronomy and the Torah, or Penteteuch was complete. They also edited the prophetic writings.
The books of Joshua, Judges, 1st and 2nd Samuel and 1st and 2nd Kings were probably begun before the fall of Jerusalem. The authors referred to certain official written sources, such as the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah and Israel and the Act of Solomon, which contributed to the new books, but have subsequently disappeared. The books were completed in Babylon by unknown Levite priests called the "Deuteronomists".
After the fall of Israel, but before the fall of Judah, Nahum, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, and Jeremiah prophesied and their works were recorded. During the Babylonian exile, the Ezekiel, Haggai and Zachariah prophesies were written. Also, unknown prophets from the school of Isaiah, called by researchers second and third Isaiah, wrote the middle and late chapters of Isaiah.
After the Persian conquest, the exiles were permitted to return to their homeland, where Malachi and Obadiah's prophecies were written. Soon after the time of Ezra, but before the Greek conquest, an unknown Levite member of the temple staff wrote the books of Ezra, Nehemiah and 1st and 2nd Chronicles. He is known as the "Chronicler."
The Psalms offer a cross section of Israel's cultic life from Cannanite times to the Maccabean period and are gathered from many genres.
The Book of Ruth was written by an unknown writer, who was not exiled to Babylon, but remained in Judah. The principal names are symbolic: Ruth = Companion; 0rpah = Disloyal; Naomi = Peaceful; and Boaz = Strength. It may have been written in answer to Ezra's injunction against foreign wives.
The author of Daniel cannot be determined, but someone of the Hasidim sect, using an earlier tradition, wrote the book in the Maccabean period.
The book of Esther poses unsurmountable difficulties.
There is an ancient liturgical tradition underlying the narrative of Joel, to which has been added his apocalyptic visions.
The Song of Songs is a collection of various songs on a similar theme that was transplanted from Assyria to Judah about the time of King Manasseh. They were used to celebrate the marriage festivals.
Lamentations was written by Jeremiah, or for him, by his secretary Baruch.
Job can be dated in the post exile period, and reflects both early and late concerns about the nature of Good and Evil.
Proverbs is a collection of wisdom literature drawn from both Jewish and non-Jewish sources and is dated from every period of their history. It may have been collected as late as the Greek period. Ecclesiastes also departs from the historical intervention concept and reflects contact with Greek philosophy, hence is of late date.
It is uncertain if Jonah was a historical figure, a parable, an allegory or a prophecy. It seems more a narrative of his activities than a prophetic pronouncement. While the book may have drawn on earlier traditions, it is of late date.
The above biblical literature is only a small part of the great outpouring of Jewish religious writing, most of which was at one time or another, considered authoritative and drifted in and out of use for worship and study. Some of this material, such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha, is still in print. Before the destruction of the temple, there was not perceived a need for "official" doctrine. The worship of Yahweh allowed considerable latitude within its limits.
By about 250 BC, those Jews who had emigrated around the Mediterranean, used the Greek language and only sparingly understood Hebrew or Aramaic. There was a need for a Greek translation of those books in common usage, so over the years, there developed an Alexandrian canon. The Greek translation of the text was called the Septuagint.
After the Romans destroyed the second Jerusalem temple and dispersed the Jews, some scholars who remained in the city of Jamnia, believed that the worship of Yahweh could be perpetuated by a Jewish bible. There was no temple worship possible at this time and Christian writings had come into usage in some of the sects. The Jamnia Academy collected those books in common usage by Hebrew speaking Jews and excluded certain books that appeared in the Alexandrian canon. They then closed the book from additions or subtractions.
In about the 500's AD a group of scholars called the Massoretes re-edited the Palestinian canon. This is the Hebrew Tanak of today, or what is generally called the Old Testament.
The early Christians used the Alexandrian canon, but in the 1500's AD the Protestants Reformers excluded those books not in the Palestinian canon, while retaining the Septuagint translation and arrangement of books.
Catholics, at the Council of Trent, retained the disputed books, but declared them to be deuterocanonical, or of secondary use. These books are the Christian Old Testament of today. They have been translated into almost every language and into different versions in some languages. The canon was not made official by a council in session, voting yea or nay, on a massive collection of spiritual literature. It was rather the consensus of worshipers, expressed by their selection of books for worship and study, that stood the test of time. This was merely fine-tuned by the Jamnia Academy, the Alexandrain scholars, the Massoretes, the Protestant reformers and the Council of Trent.
This dominant view account is part of an ongoing study of biblical history and new discoveries may call for new assessments. It also requires some decision forming by believers who consider it. The major questions are:
Are religion and science indispensable allies in a search for knowledge of God and His laws, or are they opposing poles where attraction by one means rejection of the other? If believers find in the Bible what seems to them to be historical or biological material, that is generally inadequate by currently acceptable standards, or if they find different or conflicting biblical accounts, what should be their response?
According to Masonic tradition, each Freemason has the intelligence and integrity to decide these difficult questions for himself. If they find different answers, they remain beloved brothers. This dismays certain fundamentalists from the different major religions who feel that the lodge, if it wants to please God, should be an arena where theological differences should be pounded out and men separated accordingly. This also poses a question that men must decide for themselves.
The following books contain many references for an exhaustive study of biblical origins:
1. The History of Ancient Israel by Michael Grant.
2. Understanding the Old Testament by Bernhard W. Anderson
3. Introduction to the Old Testament by J. Alberto Soggins
4. Understanding the New Testament by Howard Clark Kee
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The Lexical Puzzle of the "Due Guard"
by Walter P. Benesch, MPS
The origin and history of the Due Guard in Freemasonry has been debated by Masonic scholars with little agreement. No matter which author you quote, you can find another in disagreement. However, the authors' trails and the origin of the words weave a fascinating tale of history, war, language, and culture in transition. Harry Hoijer (1964, p 460) said: "Causes of linguistic change must be sought in these cultural contexts..." This article will explore the cultural adventure associated with the phrase "due guard."
To fully understand the phrase "due Guard" it is necessary to look at the words, the phrase, the phrase's introduction into English, and finally the historical events which shaped the English culture at the time of introduction into the language. (1) Yakov Malkiel, (1964, p. 455) said: "Despite this obvious inclusion of language in the vital fabric of culture, we often find the two separated in such a way as to imply that there is little in common between them." To avoid this mistake we must start by tracing the history of the words, the phrase, and their context in history.
As Words
From the Oxford English Dictionary we learn "due" comes from Latin, evolved into various Italian forms and found its way into a plethora of English spellings and meanings:
Due - Also dew, dewe, awe, den, diewe, dwwe, duewe, du dueue [L. debut-ut for debitum cf. It. devuto, formerly devuto, owed, due]...6. Such as ought to be observed, or to be done; fitting; proper; rightful. 1325 from the poem of Edward II (Percy) "I, Knygts shuld were clothes Ischape (create, form, shape) in dewe ordre."
From the origin of "due" we can see its roots in Latin and its evolution as a part of the Romance languages. By the time it was introduced into English, over a half a dozen spellings were in use. Yakov describes some of the action we can see happening to the word "due" (1964, p. 672):
...ancient idiosyncrasies of spelling (suggestive, if deftly interpreted, of otherwise unobservable or elusive vocal habits) and present-day patterns of dialect speech...
It is apparent "due" had more than its share of idiosyncrasies of spelling. The cause probably came from the many ways it was introduced into the English vocabulary from different sources. It also reflected the various dialects from its first introduction in middle English to present usage. The variations may also have come from the three different intrusions of the French language into Middle English during the 13th and 14th Centuries which will be discussed.
The Oxford English Dictionary describes "guard" as having a similar history:
"Guard" - Also garde, daird, yard, guarde, guard. [It., Sp. guarda, Rom. guarda, O Teut. warda] Old meaning: To find out or ascertain by watching. Obs. 1351: "First gaird the grund of all his grief, Quhat sickness Be suspect."
"Guard", like due, has a Romance origin, as opposed to English's Germanic roots. It is interesting to find it as part of the Italian and Roman Language but not Latin, indicating an informal origin, possibly linked to a common rather than formal usage. Also, like due, guard has an Italian root but was introduced into English through French, not Italian.
The Phrase
The way and manner the "due guard" was used in old times is interesting. Its usage was an informal greeting, the same as a wave or a slight bow. The Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs (1935) gives a number of references. We are told, for example, the 'beck' or 'becke' (a 'bow' or a 'nod') is as good as a 'Dieu Gard'. "'Dieugard' was Middle English for the same salutation" (Claudy, 1931, 45). No reverence was associated with the term or the gesture. But the French influence and mutations associated with Middle English altered the meaning so by the 16th Century the old French "dieu vous yard" ('God keep you') was a polite salutation, contracted in English to "Duegarde". (1) Jones (1950) agrees that no reverence was attached to the phrase in France during the 16th Century but considers the date of the usage in France (1538) and the earlier date found in English literature (1380). It could be debated who gave who the "due guard" and in what form. What is agreed upon is it was like a wave or an informal gesture of greeting.
The first reference in English literature which may have Masonic implications is the quote from 1656 (quoted in Oxford, 1971), "Bro. Hall Wks. IX 278(D): "'His master Harding could not produce...any vow anciently required, whether by beck or Dieu-gard."' Unfortunately the original sources of the quote is not available, thus the context lost. Freemasonry at this date has been verified by sufficient authors as to dismiss any further debate. So the possibility exists that the quote could be Masonic.
Where did the phrase familiar to Freemasons originate? I agree with Harry Hoijer (ibid: p. 456-7): "To understand and generalize on linguistic change, we must see it as part of the wider process of cultural change." Hoijer continues: "...changes in language, since language is an important part of the cultural pattern, must take place, in part at least, in response to cultural changes in general." (p. 458) We must turn our attention to the history and cultural changes occurring in England at the time when the phrase came into usage to find possible answers.
History
The earliest records of the words "due guard" can be found in various forms in English literature back to 1300s. From a treatise titled "Anticrist" dated 1380 we find the quote: "Ne with beckus ne with dugardes as ypocritis usen." (Oxford English Dictionary, op. cite). Yet rarely does a phrase find its way into literature until it is a part of common speech. That the phrase can be traced so far back may be part of the reason for the confusion of their origin. But to understand how they came to be a part of the English language we must first examine the cultural changes which were taking place at the time.
The 14th century is time Edward I of England took for his second wife Princess Margaret of France. His son Edward II married Isabella of France. All the marriages were in a vain attempt to form a peaceful alliance. However, the marriages encouraged many variety of exchanges between France and England besides political beds. It is possible the words and phrase entered the English language through the royal alliances.
The 1300s were also the time of Robert Bruce of Scotland. Bruce allied himself with France against England. Many a schoolboy once knew the famous tale of how Bruce's observations of a stubborn spider taught him loss of one battle is not to lose a war. Six times the spider failed to bridge the gap in the door of an old farmhouse where the defeated Bruce took refuge. But the spider did not give up. On the seventh time she succeeded. Bruce took courage from the spider and lead the Scots to a famous victory. Ten thousand Scot spearmen faced over 30,000 of England's finest knights and won! (2)
Bruce's French alliances brought with it a flood of French customs and teachers into the Scottish country. French was even taught to the exclusion of Gailic and English during this period. The Scot alliance and the marriage of two British monarchs to the French royal household indicate the merging of many customs and phrases of the French into the English language during the turbulent years following 1300. Hoijer describes what may have been happening to our phrase during this period (ibid p 458):
...The linguistic additions consist of borrowed terms, often taken from the same source as the borrowed cultural items. Though in most cases such borrowed forms take on the phonemic and grammatical peculiarities of the language which receives them, it not infrequently happens that the borrowings alter both the phonemic and the grammatical patterns of the receiving language. This has apparently happened in English where both phonemic and grammatical patterns have been affected by borrowings from French.
Hoijer is explaining how the meaning, context, and the spellings could have altered so dramatically to the phrase "due guard".
What does this history have to do with the phrase "due Guard?" The individual words "due" and "guard" undoubtedly entered into the English vocabulary during the English assimilation of French political and family marriages. French teachers were brought over to Scotland to educate the boys in the finer points of culture and the social graces, including the French language (see: Churchill 1956).
The combination and intermingling of French words into the English language is well documented. A linguistic friend of mine estimated 25,000 French words found their way into English's core vocabulary during the 13th and 14th Centuries. Sarah Gudschinsky describes the connection between individual terms as opposed to a basic core vocabulary (1964, p. 613):
Terms for new items in the material culture..., are frequently borrowed along with the cultural items...The contrast between the basic core vocabulary and general vocabulary may be seen in the...illustration of French loan words in(to) English...
Considering the advent of the use of the phrase "due guard" it appears the phrase is part of the French loan words described by Gudschinsky.
Another possible source of the phrase may have come during the same period, but through the English holdings in northern France. From the time of Henry II in 1149 to the time of Henry V, the English holdings were a thorn in the side of the French monarchs. The English possessions in the 15th century included Brittany, Normandy, Champagne, Maine, and Guienne in the south. This territory includes the cities of Paris, Verneuil, Troyes, and Bordeaux as well as the Seine river. It was only after Joan of Arc's campaign and victory at Patay did the English hold on France begin to crumble. By 1453, the battle of Castillon represented the last of English resistance to the French. By the end of the year the English had been driven off the continent (Churchill, ibid., p 423).
The assimilation of French language and culture into the customs of the English during the three hundred years of occupation must have been great. There is a strong possibility the phrase "due guard" came into English usage during the occupation. However, in reviewing the literature and allowing for an author's romantic license, I feel "due guard" more likely was introduced into the English language through the marriages of the royal families or the assimilation of French language and culture into Scotland during and after the reign of Robert Bruce.
In Freemasonry
Now that we are fully confused as to the origin and early use of the phrase "due guard" in English, we find the Masonic scholars in even greater disarray. Albert G. Mackey, one of the most quoted Masonic authors states the due guard is an American invention (1924): A mode of recognition which derives its name from its object, which is to duly guard the person using it in reference to his obligations, and the penalty for their violation. The Due Guard is an Americanism, and of comparatively recent origin, being unknown to the English and contential systems. In some of the old rituals of the date of 1757, the expression is used, but only as referring to what is now called the Sign.
The American origin of the Due Guard is also described by H. L. Haywood (p. 134):
'Due Guard.' This, it is probable, was not used in early English Masonry, but came into practice in this country.
If we are to take Mackey and Haywood, at face value, it appears the "due guard" is an American innovation into the Masonic rites.
Another school of thought attributes the origin of the "Due Guard" to the French. Claudy attributes it to the French "Dew Garde", and Allen Roberts agrees (p. 30):
...It's called the Due Guard. You were taught to use it as a form of salutation, because it is a symbol of respect. It also calls upon you always to remember your obligation as an Entered Apprentice. By using it before the Master and Wardens of the lodge, you have signified your agreement to submit to their authority. The name may have come from the French Dieu Garde, meaning "God guard me."
However, Claudy does think it was in use in the early English workings (1931, 44): "...the Due Guard, which was no doubt in use in the English Lodges of the early eighteenth century, and is very likely to have been inspired by, or borrowed from, operative practice." The use and speculations of the origins of the due guard are not limited to one Order of Masonry. C.W. Leadbeater joins Allen and Claudy in assigning it a French origin (p. 152):
'Dieu-garde'...we proceed in CoMasonry to give the Dieugarde, a contraction of the French 'Dieu vous garde', which means 'God keep you' though in English it has been corrupted into due-guard...It indicates that the E.A. being himself but a beginner, has as yet neither the right nor the power to give any blessing but that which is prescribed in the V.S.L.; he may use only the words which are taught to him, for he is not yet in the position to be either a direct channel or a receiver of the higher force.
Just as we conclude the due guard is of French origin, we find the writings of Bernard Jones (1950, p. 290-1) who claims:
"...the Due Guard, which was no doubt in use in the English Lodges of the early eighteenth century, and is very likely to have been inspired by, or borrowed from, operative practice."
"Every separate rite in the American system appears to have its own Due Guard, although in the Irish system the Due Guard is only known in the first and third of the Craft Degrees, an indication, perhaps that both of the Due Guards belonged originally to the old first and second Degrees before the rearrangement and the addition of the third.
So we find that the Due Guard of Freemasonry originated in early English America, just outside Dublin, Ireland, as brought over from France by a group of lost operative guild Masons who probably landed in Jamestowne. Confused? If you followed the last sentence, you should be! I do agree with Roberts that the phrase is French in origin, but with Jones in its Masonic usage first found in England or Ireland.
Summary
What does this tell us? First that the words "due guard" are very old and can be dated to Middle English. Due guard's first appearance in English literature comes at a time after the Norman Conquest and during the turbulent years when much that was French was mingled with English. The gesture which due guard refers to was an informal wave or salute. Finally it may have found its way into Masonry as early as 1656.
Does this tell us anything of its current usage? I think it does. First, it is still a greeting, of sorts. Mackey states the due guard is: "A mode of recognition which derives its name from its object, which is to duly guard the person using it" (Claudy, 1931, 44). Claudy continues (ibid 44-5):
Its use, salute, is a silent way of saying to all present, "I remember my obligation; I am conscious of the penalty of its violation; I forget not my duty." The Due Guard is given by an E.A. entering and retiring, that he may never forget the significance of his position when he took upon himself that obligation which gave him the title Brother. As so many other words found in languages around the world a reversal of original meaning has transformed due guard from an informal greeting to a sign of reverence. Again Claudy may give us the reason (op ct., 45):
The old French term Dieu for 'God' was known in early English literature, and there may be a relation between the two terms, although it seems that the word 'Due' is used in a most obvious way as meaning 'correct', 'proper', in the sense of the term 'due form'.
The current meaning as found in the Oxford English Dictionary agrees:
Dieugard(e) also dewgard, due yard. [French in full Dieu vous garde, in OF diew vous yard, "God keep you!"] The salutation "God preserve you!", a polite or formal salutation; a spoken salutation or word of recognition, as contrasted with a mere 'beck' or nod.
In Masonry we assigned a double entndre, of a serious nature, to our use of due guard. It has become both a formal salutation and a sign of recognition of the degree in Masonry we are working (many jurisdictions of Masonry can and do work in any of the three degrees.)
As to the actual signs associated with the phrase Leadbeater informs us that the due guard is but a part of the signs. He states (1926, 152): "Then follows a gesture which is at the same time a salutation to God and a dedication of power (the sign of the degree, author)." A higher meaning has unfolded. The solemn formalized sign associated with the Masonic term "due guard" has evolved from a strange and interesting tale. It took us through history, culture, linguistics, and war. From a simple phrase, known to all Freemasons, we have seen a lexical puzzle evolve into a magnificent picture of our history and language.
Footnotes
1. Malkiel (1964, p. 674-5) gives a good example of this type of analysis in the following: "Pictorial analysis can be of great usefulness for any investigation into the metaphoric extensions of a word's limited semantic gambit...The typical features of a European flail, reduced to its bare essentials, include a long slender her (handle) at one end of which a stouter or shorter stick (swingle), occasionally curved or rounded, is so attached as to swing freely. Normally it serves to beat the grain out of the ear, but it may equally well qualify for separating beans from their pods, for handling flax, and fair comparable subsidiary functions. There are many variables: the connection between the two sticks shows several degrees of elaborateness, the material out of which the sticks are carved is mostly but not always, wood (for instance, in the medieval military weapon called flail the swingle was replaced by a metal ball or a piece set with spikes and the short handle was generally of metal). The irreducible elements that make up the pattern, then, are three: (1) difference in length between the two bars, ordinarily in favor of the handle: (2) irreversible distribution of functions between them (3) provisions for free swinging, yet solid attachment. This last-named condition explains such figurative uses in English as (obs.) flair 'swinging part, as a gate bar or lever of a press': (anat., surg.) flail joint 'joint showing abnormal mobility' (coil. ) to flail about (one's arms, etc.).
2. For a brief and eloquent description of how Bruce secured victory I suggest Winston Churchill's Nobel winning work A History of the English Speaking Peoples, vol. I, p. 313-15.
Bibliography
Churchill, Winston S: A History of the English Speaking Peoples: The Birth of Britain (vol. 1), Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 1956.
Claudy, Carl H.: Introduction to Freemasonry; The Temple Publishers, Washington, D.C. 1931 (p. 44-5).
Gudschinsky, Sarah C.: "The ABC's of Lexicostatistics (Glottochronology)" in Language in Culture and Society by Dell Hymes, Harper & Row, New York, 1964.
Haywood, H.L.: Symbolical Masonry, Southern Publishers, Kingsport, Tenn. 1923 (p. 123).
Hoijer, Harry: "Linguistic and Cultural Change" in Language in Culture and Society by Dell Hymes, Harper & Row, New York, 1964.
Jones, Bernard E.: Freemasons' Guide and Compendium, George G. Harrap and Co. Ltd., London, England, 1950 (p. 290-1).
Leadbeater, C.W.: The Hidden Life in Freemasonry, The Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, Madras, India, 1926 (p. 152)
Mackey, Albert G. et. al.: An Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, The Masonic History Co., Chicago, 1924.
Malkiel, Yakov: "Distinctive Traits of Romance Linguistics" in Language in Culture and Society by Dell Hymes, Harper & Row, New York, 1964.
Oxford English Dictionary (The Compact Edition of the), Oxford University Press, New York, 1971.
Roberts, Allen E.: The Craft and Its Symbols: Opening the Door to Masonic Symbolism, Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply Co., Richmond, VA 1974
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by Laurence E. Kynett, 33d P.M.
Editor's Note: For a number of years the question of solicitation has been debated in the various Grand Lodges. More heat than light has been generated. Usually when the subject is brought up it is defused with the comment "These young people just don't understand what Masonry is." This, as are many statements made by my peers, is untrue. Young people understand what is going on. So do some of us older ones. This is an article by an older brother who certainly understands what is happening in the fraternity.
Larry Kynett is a Mason of 55 years standing. He was born in Lisbon, IA June 22, 1906. He has been married for 56 years. He is a graduate of Cornell College in 1929 with a B.A. in Chemistry. He is a past Master, a 33d Scottish Rite Mason and a District Lecturer, holding certificate No. 1144. Since my own certificate is 2451 I can see how many years Larry has been in the quarries. He served in Patton's Third Army in World War II and retired as a Lt. Colonel. He is a member and a Past Head of the York Rite bodies, a member of the Shrine and active in the Shrine band. He edited and published the Clinton Scottish Rite Booster News for ten years. He is still active in all bodies and, if you will read this article with an open mind, has a great deal to contribute to the fraternity for years to come.
The June 1987 issue of The Philalethes, Volume XL, Number 3, presented a reprint by permission from the Iowa Grand Lodge Bulletin on the Subject, Solicitation Or Liquidation - Which? In this article I addressed the appalling and horrifying loss of membership in our Masonic Lodges, while calling upon the Grand Lodge of Iowa to lead the way ahead of all other Grand Jurisdictions in the United States toward taking firm and positive action to eliminate that portion of our Code which lists Solicitation for Masonic Membership as a Masonic Offense.
The Grand Lodge of Iowa in its 1987 annual session made a positive, but feeble move when they gave resounding approval to the following insipid addition to Section 386(n) of Chapter 66 of the Code of Iowa, "...there is no objection to encouraging a man who is considered to be a suitable candidate for Freemasonry. After the procedure for obtaining membership in a Masonic Lodge has been explained, the potential candidate should be left to make his own decision and come of his own free will."
So, what has changed? Section 386(n) as amended in 1987 is still listed under Masonic offenses and the first 12 words of this paragraph still read, "It shall be unMasonic to solicit any person to be a Mason." The revised Section 386(n) leaves it to the individual lodge to determine whether or not such action is a triable offense. The balance of Section 386(n) has already been quoted.
What have we really gained? In essence we have gained permission to leave a man alone (an unencouraging and non progressive procedure) to make his own decision and come of his own free will. Lodges and members have traditionally left prospects alone - too much alone, because any form of Solicitation was forbidden. We have paid dearly for this neglect over the years through the loss of thousands of prospects who, with a little encouragement, would have signed a petition. Our policy of leaving them alone has always been an abomination, and what type of a man is he, who knowing the cost of fees and dues, does not reserve unto himself the right to make his own decision.
A simile would be for any Church to foster laws or regulations prohibiting their dedicated and devoted members from carrying their religion into the world, seeking to lead profanes to a belief in God and membership in their Church. But Churches possess better judgement than to use such tactics. What an utterly, utterly ridiculous regulation this would be. What an utterly, utterly ridiculous regulation it is that prohibits a Master Mason from going forth, with pride and dignity, to carry the lofty principles of Freemasonry to those whom he believes would profit from their Masonic experience and become a true and faithful worker for the Craft.
Masonry's stand on Solicitation is archaic, and the threat of Masonic Trial for the Act of Solicitation is a powerful threat, a detriment and a stumbling block to the growth of Masonry.
Hasn't the time long since passed, when Masons, throughout our country - in all states - while considering their negative growth of the past 30 years, should have come to the realization that Masonry is on the brink of disaster, that it merely exists on its own type of death row and that it will cease to exist within 20 years at its present rate of decline unless Grand Lodges across the nation, wake up to the existing peril, assume their responsibility and take positive action to reverse the trend?
Why all of this furor over Solicitation? It boils down to the simple fact that to survive, this fraternity of Masonry must experience a constant flow - a flood if you will - of new members into the lodges. We have been eminently unsuccessful in attracting new members under the old system of being left alone to decide, with the net result that Masonic membership has plunged by over one million men during the last 30 years. If we were a corporation, the stock holders would have long since taken management to task for the horrendous losses we have sustained. It is a very disturbing thought when we realize that our members today spend far more time attending the funerals of departed Brethren than they spend conferring the Masonic Degrees.
How wonderful and productive it would be if we, unfettered by Code restrictions, could with pride, not only invite, but urge worthy prospects to become one of us, that we might share with them our tenets of Faith, Hope and Charity, of Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth.
A first step in the direction of reestablishing Masonry on firm ground would be for all Grand Jurisdictions to eliminate the provisions against Solicitation by removing those provisions from their respective Codes. It is a revolutionary thought but it might produce magnificent results, if we don't wait too long to get started.
To eliminate the provisions prohibiting Solicitation with their accompanying penalties for non conformity would really open the doors of Masonry, not only for candidates, but also for individual members, Lodges and Grand Lodges, who would then be free to urge good men and true to join our ranks. The doors could be opened on a personal basis, but more especially through educational programs and advertising in newspapers, magazines and on TV.
And what is so horrendous about advertising our Craft other than, "it has never been done before"? It is impossible in this period in time to imagine growth in any product, organization, society or whatever, without advertising, without publicity, without boosting, without ballyhoo, meanwhile promoting it earnestly on a person to person basis with vigor and enthusiasm.
Only those who are fatally stricken with idealism, believe that Masonry will continue to prosper in good health, and survive, while retaining all of the old time worn, outmoded and hackneyed rules and regulations, specifically, the restrictions on Solicitation.
As Masons we possibly fear change, but is it possible to make progress and never changer If we could be suddenly whisked back in time and find ourselves in attendance at a lodge meeting in England a couple of hundred or more years ago, we would be inclined to say, "The ritual and the Masonic customs are strange - not really like those we know today in 1988 in our respective lodges."
Why should they not be exactly the same? They are not exactly the same because over the years changes have been necessary to meet existing conditions. Those ancient Brothers faced the issues and changed what was necessary. Today, we face a necessary change. Let us face it with confidence and the knowledge that what we do will be done with the continued existence of the fraternity foremost in our minds.
Perhaps Grand Lodges always move slowly and deliberately in making any changes, especially when the change may possibly infringe upon established usages and customs of the Craft. In years gone by perhaps we could afford to wait. However, our losses have been so cataclysmic during the last twenty or thirty years that we are now on a roller coaster headed into oblivion. I can understand our enemies working vigorously to destroy Masonry. They need not work so diligently, for within a few more years we will destroy ourselves from within our Fraternity by our own individual attitudes of indifference, unconcern, lethargy and apathy. In my thinking a decision must be made very soon, namely, which is the more important - the reestablishment of the growth and good health of Masonry in general by bending or eliminating an ancient custom (questionable in the first place) or sticking rigidly to all ancient customs while watching Masonry continue to die?
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by Tom Mote, MPS
Most of us have experienced, at one time or another, "deja vu" or the feeling that "we have been there before." My most vivid memory of being made an entered apprentice Mason is linked to just such an experience. The time was late 1953 and, as I was conducted about the lodge room, I became acutely aware of the similarity to a portion of the English coronation ceremonies. Earlier in the year I had listened to the radio broadcast of the coronation of Elizabeth II and, much later that day, watched the event on television after the film had been flown across the Atlantic Ocean. This, of course, was before the advent of instant satelite television. The first act of the coronation ritual is called 'The Recognition' and "...is a survival from the past for it preserves the ancient form of the people's ratification of the election of the sovereign." (Tanner, 1953, p.110). The young queen was presented by the Archbishop to her subjects in the east, south, west and north sides in turn. At each presentation the Archbishop spoke: "Sirs, I present unto you Queen Elizabeth your undoubted Queen: Wherefore all you who come this day to do your homage and service, Are you willing to do the same?" In theory, at least, the people could have refused to accept her as queen.
Now, to place circumambulation in a Masonic context, the 'Recognition' of the sovereign is similar but not identical to the circumambulation of the candidate. Certainly, the questions and responses differ but, in both rituals, the opportunity is provided to accept or reject the individual being presented. The fact that rejection probably never happens is not as important as is the act of acceptance which is experienced by the candidate.
Just what is circumambulation and when and where did it originate? Harry Carr (1976, p. 35) was unable to locate any earlier Masonic reference than a 1737 'expose' in which the candidate was required "...to take three tours in the Chamber, around a space marked on the Floor..." Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (Gove, 1967, p.150) gives the latin derivation of the word as "circum + ambulate" and translates it "to circle on foot rituallistically." Diana L. Eck (Eliade, 1987, p. 509), defines circumambulation as a ritual term which means literally "to walk a circle around' a holy place, person, or object." She states that the practice has been common in cultures over a very wide distribution of both time and geographical location. Circumambulation is typically in a clockwise, or sunwise, direction but "...in Native American and Hindu traditions, as in many others, reversing the direction of circling was considered a reversal of the natural order and was associated with catastrophe and death... In sixteenth-century England this turning in an unnatural direction came to be called 'widdershins' and was associated with danger, magic, and witches."
Albert Pike (1871, p. 427) says "In the Indian Mysteries, as the candidate made his three circuits, he paused each time he reached the South, and said, 'I copy the example of the Sun and follow his beneficent course."' Pike continues, saying "Blue Masonry has retained the Circuits, but has utterly lost the explanation, which is, that in the mysteries the candidate invariably represented the Sun..."
Robert I. Clegg, (1945, p. 141) in his revision of Albert Mackey's classic, "Symbolism of Freemasonry", extensively reviews the origins and usages of the rite of circumambulation. He says "The prevalence of this rite among the ancients appears to have been universal, and it originally... alluded to the apparent course of the sun in the firmament, which is from the east to west by way of the south." He cites examples of the rite in ancient Grimee and Rome as well as among the Hindus and Druids. The Roman author, Plautis, caused one of his characters to say, "If you would do reverence to the gods, you must turn to the right hand." Similarly, Virgil described Corynaeus's purification of his companions at the funeral of Misenus "...by passing three times around them while aspersing them with the lustral waters." Clegg (1945, p. 142) remarks at this point that "To do so conveniently, it was necessary that he should have moved with his right hand towards them."
In Homer's "Iliad" (Hutchens, 1952, p. 161), Achilles honored his dear friend, Patroclus, by leading his chariots and soldiers three times around the body. D'Alviella (Hastings, 1908, p. 657) states that "...the Irish people, when burying their dead, walk at least once, sometimes three times, round the graveyard, sunwise, with the coffin." He states that this custom was observed also in Holland, Germany and the Hebrides but that, sometimes, the procession passed around the church as well as around the graveyard. Eck (Eliade, 1987, p. 511) tells that "...in the Sefardic and Hasidic traditions of Judaism, seven 'haqqafot' [circumambulations] are made around a cemetery prior to burial. She also says that three circumambulations are a traditional part of the Buddhist cremation ritual.
Circumambulation is not just associated with mourning and funerals but, as D'Alviella (Hastings, 1908, p. 657) tells us it is a generalized "...custom of walking round objects or persons for the purpose of influencing or honoring them." For example, in India, he says "...the young Brahman, at the time of his being initiated, [was required] to drive three times around a tree or sacred pool." Similarly, anyone who wished to construct a house was enjoined to walk "...three times around the site' sprinkling it with water and repeating the verse of the Rig Veda." In the same culture, brides were required to "...pass three times around the domestic hearth; it was the seventh step in this walk..." which made the union irrevocable. In Rome, "...the bridal pair passed around the family altar..." and in certain villages in Scotland and Germany, "...a procession round the house or church has to be made either by the cortege of the bride or by the bride and bridegroom." Similar bridal procession, are common in the Greek Orthodox tradition.
Bernard Jones (1950, p. 272), in describing the consecration of a thirteenth century Roman Catholic church, quotes Durandus, "...the bishop's procession made three circuits of the church, the bishop knocking on the door after each of them, but being admitted only at the third knocking."
It has been suggested that there is a similarity between the rite of circumambulation and the tradition of walking or riding around the boundries of a kingdom or an estate as a part of the ceremony of taking possession. H.P.H. Bromwell (1905, p. 524), in his exhaustive treatise on Masonic symbolism, argues that "...there does not appear to be any analogy between the 'intent' and 'uses' of such a proceeding and that which we find in the Lodge room. A purchaser or heir of lands, or a ruler by right of inheritance or conquest, comes in of 'his own right', and in passing round 'his' kingdom or estate, he would signalize his independent 'right' and 'authority' to enter on the possession thereof. But an applicant or postulant for admission to the rights, etc., and benefits of the Lodge, enters by mere 'favor', and every step he advances is by 'permission', and he can do nothing to 'entitle' himself to that which he desires to obtain."
George H. Steinmetz, in "Freemasonry Its Hidden Meaning" (1948, p. 140), describes the rite of circumambulation as "...the 'Rite of purification' of him who is about to be initiated’." He also alludes to various suggestions that one "...turn to the right hand" in showing reverence. Steinmetz argues that this is consistent with the Masonic injunction that "right is the stronger side of man." In this connection, Bromwell (1905, p. 519) discusses the belief or superstition that "...'right' is the side of good fortune, success, honor, truth, sincerity, and the like, and that the left signifies that which is bad, false and unlucky..." He then dismisses the concept as having any significance in relation to the Masonic rite of circumambulation.
Another noted Masonic writer on the subject of symbolism, Alex Horne (1981, p. 34) has discussed many of the points made so far in this paper. He also has found some examples not cited by other authors. For example, as early as 1565, the Ironmongers Guild in London included circumambulation as a part of their ceremony of 'crowning' the newly elected master and installing his wardens. Horne continues, saying "It would be no exaggeration to say that this practice of circumambulation, to which the British people in general (like others) appear to have been strongly addicted, may be the source of our own specifically Masonic practice along the same or similar lines. We may even presume, perhaps, that this practice in all likelyhood may have been indulged in by our Operative brethren as well, perhaps in some ceremony connected with their work, of which we now have no record; or perhaps in some non-Masonic connection, strictly speaking, but simply as members of a community, sharing in the life of that community, with all its traditions, its practices, and its beliefs."
The encyclopedist, Henry Wilson Coil, (1961, p. 128) summarizes much of the material which has been reviewed in this paper and then cautions that "...the dogma of Sun-worship does not exist in Freemasonry. This is a good example of the many places where we should proceed with caution and not resort 'first' to ancient, pagan superstitions to explain what may have been a very simple and practical origin and purpose." He goes on to say that "Circumambulation, like many other things in Freemasonry, offers interesting grounds for speculation, but we should also keep in mind the virtues of...'circumspection', which means to look around, that is, inspect all sides and all approaches to a subject before jumping to conclusions."
Joseph Fort Newton, one of our most eloquent Masonic writers, was far less concerned with the origins of the elements of our ritual than with what those elements symbolize. In reference to the Rite of Circumambulation, he says: "Surely he is a strange man who can witness it without deep feeling. The initiate is told that he can neither forsee nor prevent danger, but that he is in the hands of a true and trusty friend in whose fidelity he can with safety confide...As a mere ceremony it may mean nothing; as a symbol it means everything, if we regard initiation as we should, as a picture of a man pursuing the journey of life, groping his dim and devious way out of the unreal into the real, out of the darkness into light, out of the shadows of mortality into the way of life everlasting." (1928, p.63)
In closing, let me again quote Bernard Jones (1950, p. 275), "Whether, Therefore, Freemasonry took the rite from the religion of either ancient or medieval days, we recognize in the circumambulation of the Candidate an element of most or all of the mysteries, stretching back, probably, to before the dawn of civilization."
References:
Bromwell, H.P.H., "Restorations of Masonic Geometry and Symbolry". Denver: The Henry P.H. Bromwell Masonic Publishing Company, 1905.
Carr, H., "The Freemason at Work". London: Lewis Masonic, Ltd., 1976.
Clegg, R.l., "Mackey's Symbolism of Freemasonry". Chicago: The Masonic History Company, 1952.
Coil, H.W., "Coil's Masonic Encyclopedia". New York: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply Co., 1961.
Eliade, M. (Ed), "The Encyclopedia of Religion". New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1987.
Gove, P.B. (Ed), "Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary". Springfield, Mass.: C. and C. Merriam Company, Publishers, 1967.
Hastings, J. (Ed), "Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics". New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1908.
Horne, A., "Sources of Masonic Symbolism". Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply Co., Inc., 1981.
Hutchins, R.M. (Ed), "Great Books of the Western World, vol. 4". Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1952.
Jones, B.E., "Freemason's Guide and Compendium". London: Harrap Ltd., 1950.
Newton, J.F., "Short Talks on Masonry". Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply Co., Inc., 1969.
Pike, A., "Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry". Washington, D.C.: The Roberts Publishing Co., 1871.
Steinmetz, G.H., "Freemasonry Its Hidden Meaning". Richmond, Va.: Macoy Publishing and Masonic Supply Co., 1976.
Tanner, L.E., "The History and Treasures of Westminister Abbey". London: Pitkin, 1953.
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PART FOUR
by Tom Starkweather, MPS
(Three Masons have been reunited for the first time since them early twenties. They had grown up in a small midwestern town and had petitioned and been raised together before going their individual ways. They had corresponded during the intervening years and occasionally called each other on special days such as birthdays and Christmas. They had talked about getting together and now they had done so. In the course of time the conversation had turned to the Craft. This is the fourth installment of a serialized five part report on the discourse).
Jack: I'm not ready to concede that Masonry has a leadership dilemma but for the sake of further discussion I'll say it does and ask the two of you to explain why you believe there is a problem.
Bob: Well, I'd be the first to admit there are some very obvious exceptions but overall I think there is a definite Masonic leadership problem in this country. In part I believe it is caused by the changes in our society since the end of World War II. Let me explain. Before 1940 most Americans lived in rural America and small towns. Cities weren't anywhere near their present size. There wasn't a lot to do in the evening - listen to the radio and read - go to a movie once or twice a year. Remember both movies and radio were fairly recent inventions. Before then there were band concerts, traveling circuses and stage plays and other diversions but society didn't have a steady diet of them. Thus the Craft and lodge night played an important role in the life of its members.
Dick: You're suggesting then that Masonry didn't have any competition.
Bob: Not entirely, there were other organizations, mostly fraternal orders, through the years. The Oddfellows, the Redmen, the Owls, the Woodmen of the World and so on. And many Masons also belonged to some of those groups. Some like the Elks, the Moose and the Eagles are still active but the others have disappeared from the American scene with the changes in our society. But a new kind of organization has grown by leaps and bounds in this century. I'm talking about the service and civic clubs - the Optimists, Lions, Kiwanis, Civitans, Sertoma, et cetera. Again many brothers also belong to these groups. And while they are not a fraternal order they do compete for an individual's time. And they are willing to accommodate a potential leader. That is they can meet anywhere. They don't need a lodge room and paraphernalia. If a breakfast or a noon meeting time is more convenient for the members then that's when they meet.
Jack: So what you are saying is that while there are a lot more people in this country there are a lot more organizations looking for leadership.
Dick: Including Masonry's appendant bodies which must number more than a hundred.
Jack: And clubs and organizations that meet at breakfast or lunch near the workplace still allow a person time with his family but evening meetings at a temple - that may mean another long commute downtown - don't.
Bob: That's right. Plus civic and service clubs are not bashful about publicizing their charitable projects and community good deeds. We're all human and we all appreciate a pat on the back once in a while. . . a little recognition from our neighbors. And where can we get that peer approval? From handing out turkeys on Thanksgiving in front of the television and newspaper cameras, running little league baseball programs, et cetera or in a fraternity that refuses to advertise its generous and beneficent doings and cloaks them in secrecy much of the time.
Dick: Don't you think there is another aspect to this question of Masonic leadership and that is the time required to go through the chairs and become Master of the Lodge.
Jack: Absolutely. Such a procedure and the requirements were invented to ensure that the leaders knew the work and were willing to devote the necessary time to the Craft. But that was for an earlier era where life was lived at a much slower pace and most men would spend their entire lives in the same community.
Bob: The leaders in a community today - although they may be Masons - look at the five or ten years that it takes to go through the chairs and opt to apply their talents elsewhere. There just doesn't seem to be a payoff to investing that amount of time when you may be transferred or move before you reach the goal and then you are faced with starting all over.
Jack: This same problem permeates the entire Masonic structure doesn't it? The appendant bodies. The Grand Lodge. The question is not who is the best one to lead but who has the time? He may be a lousy manager of resources, a boring, uninspirational speaker and one who never had an original thought in his life but if he knows the ritual and has "paid his dues" by putting in the required time in the preliminary offices he becomes the figurehead - our recognized leader.
Dick: And, of course, elevation of the mediocre provides no incentive for the true leaders of a community to emulate him. to follow in his footsteps.
Bob: And, you see this leadership problem or rather lack of it is compounded by the tradition and rules of another time. Examine most Grand Lodge organizational hierarchies and you'll find that being a past master is a prerequisite to holding office or even serving on an advisory committee. So we can't select our best brains to address the problems of membership, the question of publicizing our good works, the idea of changing the ritual to meet the times - the choice is confined to the well intentioned but colorless brothers who inherited the leadership positions simply because they had the time. Mediocrity breeds mediocrity.
Jack: This criteria of having been through the chairs or employing only past masters on committees and in Grand Lodge of fires was intended to ensure that we had the most experienced and best minds in positions of leadership but I guess what we are leading up to is that the policy may be counterproductive and self-defeating in this time and age.
Dick: And, while these are good men - completely dedicated to the Craft - they are not leaders in many if not all cases. Further they are bogged down in everyday problems, like building upkeep in an old part of town with a declining membership, and find it impossible to objectively examine such weighty issues as the future of Freemasonry when the temple roof leaks or vandals have painted graffiti on the parking lot surface. They have to worry about getting a dues increase passed to meet expenses and whether raising dues will result in further membership losses. They have difficulty seeing the forest for the trees.
Bob: If Masonry doesn't have a leadership problem, Jack, then why haven't our Grand Lodges and even appendant bodies met in closed session to discuss the unparalled attacks on the Craft, the declining membership, deviations from business as usual in some jurisdictions and the results of these changes and so on? I'll answer my question. It is because such a meeting of itself would require real leadership and a great deal of salesmanship...because it would have no precedent and this is a problem for leaders that rely on past policies and laurels to guide their actions...because the topics might be controversial and the leaders would have to come back and explain to their constituents what actions have been taken and why. Obviously, it is much easier and simpler in the short run to hide behind the status quo - "I'll be a Past Grand Master in another year. Let the next guy worry about it. I just don't have the time or inclination to become involved."
Jack: It's something to think about - that's for sure.
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by Mervin B. Hogan, FPS
Mathematics possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty - a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture, without appeal to any part of our weaker nature, yet sublimely pure, and capable of a stern perfection such as only the greatest art can show.
- Bertrand Russell, The Principles of Mathematics, 1903.
Masonry stresses to its candidates the great importance in life of learning and knowledge. The ritual presentation makes the actual instructions necessarily brief, although arithmetic and geometry are both specified. The first is customarily presented as:
Arithmetic, the science of computing by numbers, is absolutely essential, not only to a thorough knowledge of mathematics, but to a proper pursuit of our daily vocations.
To Lord Kelvin is attributed a widely known statement which underlines further the importance of numerical or arithmetical values under certain circumstances:
I often say that when you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind; it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, advanced to the stage of Science, whatever the matter may be.
Some basic aspects of the second of these two ancient disciplines are addressed:
Geometry treats of the powers and properties of magnitude in general where length, breadth, and thickness are concerned...Geometry is the foundation of architecture and the root of mathematics. Geometry, or Masonry, originally synonymous terms, being of a divine and moral nature, is enriched with the most useful knowledge; while it proves the wonderful properties of nature, it demonstrates the more important truths of morality.
It is a grievous error to approach the principles of geometry otherwise than with the most serious concentration. Venerable tradition rather colorfully presents this fact.
There is an ancient legend about a Pharaoh who desired to improve his mind by studying geometry. He sent for a noted instructor named Pythagoras. The pursuit of geometry was progressing favorably but the Pharaoh became impatient and inquired, "Isn't there an easier way to master geometry than struggling through all this tedious detail?" "This is the only way I know," replied Pythagoras. "But I am Pharaoh," remonstrated the ruler. "Aye, Sire," agreed Pythagoras, "but there is no royal road to geometry!"
The mental discipline resulting from a sustained study of the strenuous "elements of geometry" is a difficult consequence to secure from any other field of study.
Abraham Lincoln was once asked how he prepared to practice law. He related that the occasion arose which caused him to ask himself, "What do I do when I demonstrate that is different than when I reason and prove?" From his dictionary he found that demonstrate meant "proof beyond possibility of doubt"; which he noted meant nothing more to him than "blue to a blind man." "So," he said, "I left my situation in Springfield, went to my father's house, and stayed there until I could give any proposition in six books of Euclid at sight. I then found out what 'demonstrate' means, and went back to my law studies."
To attempt to discuss mathematics from any point of view is both challenging and frustrating. If one is unacquainted with this aspect, he finds it really incredible to further learn that there does not exist a single definition of mathematics that is generally accepted by all scholars. It will probably greatly disturb him furthermore to learn that this great discipline is divided into two branches commonly identified as (a) pure or abstract mathematics and (b) applied mathematics. Also to his dismay, or possible confusion, he quickly learns that the adherents to either of these realms of learning choose or prefer not to recognize nor communicate with the other group.
In 1687 Sir Isaac Newton published in Latin his Principia mathematica philosophiae naturalist This was translated into English by Andrew Motte as The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy and issued at London in 1803. Widely dispersed qualified authorities view this great classic as the monument to man's intellect and mental achievement. Its singular author was viewed by his contemporaries as something of a "superman," a status he has more or less continued to hold to the present day. Addressing himself by implication to this theme, Newton is credited with having stated:
I do not know what I may appear to the world; but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. (Sir David Brewster, Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, Vol. 2, Chap. 27, 1855.)
A number of adulatory or eulogistic expressions relating to Newton are scattered throughout the literature. William Wordsworth's well known comment reads:
Where the statue stood
Of Newton with his prism and silent face,
The marble index of a mind forever
Voyaging through strange seas of thought, alone.
William Blake penned some impressive lines with Masonic appeal that are highly appropriate at this point:
But go, merciless man, enter into the infinite labyrinth of another's brain
Ere thou measure the circle that he shall run.
Go, thou cold recluse, into the fires
Of another's high flaming rich bosom, and return unconsum'd, and write laws.
If thou canst not do this, doubt thy theories, learn to consider all men as thy equals,
Thy brethren, and not as thy foot or thy hand, unless thou first fearest to burn them.
This spirit may be sharpened by the words of Henry Van Dyke:
The longer I live
And the more I see
Of the struggle of souls
For the lights above,
The stranger the Truth
Comes home to me,
That..."The universe rests
On the shoulders of Love
A love so boundless,
Deep and broad,
That men have renamed it
And called it God."
Masonry presents itself openly to the community by plainly identifying its headquarters as a Masonic Temple. The facilities within that structure are employed to conduct the functions related to perpetuating the teaching of its admirable tenets. Its ambience is clearly expressed as: "In this house you may meet those not of your own sort. They may differ from you in nationality, birth, position, possessions, education or affinity. But we are maintaining here a small part of the world's great future democracy; we ask you, therefore, courtesy and tolerance of all alike." ("The Bancroft Welcome," Marguerite Ogden Bigelow [Mrs. James Wilkinson], The Craftsman, May 1909.)
The poetic verse of Robert Bun echoes the cherished view held dear 1: every Mason:
Ye powers who preside o'er the winu and the tide,
Who marked each element's border;
Who formed this frame with beneficent aim,
Whose sovereign statute is order:-
Within this dear mansion, may wayward Contention
Or withered Envy ne'er enter;
May secrecy round be the mystical bound,
And brotherly Love be the center.
Viewed in a broad context, Masonry's aim and goal, or objective, is the transmission of a body of knowledge and tradition: that is Teaching; with the related expansion of the frontiers of knowledge and learning to enrich man's culture which is, namely, Research. Modern means to that end are impressively set before us by the relevant lines of the poet Stephen Vincent Benet:
Books are not men and yet they are alive,
They are man's memory and his aspiration,
The link between his present and his past,
The tools he builds with.
In his famous text book of 1868, Principles of Chemistry, the world renowned Russian chemist, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendelejeff, tells his reader;
The edifice of science not only requires material, but also a plan...without the material, the plan alone is but a castle in the air - a mere possibility; whilst the material without a plan is but useless matter...In the work of science, the artisan, architect, and creator are very often one and the same individual; but sometimes, as in other walks of life, there is a difference between them; sometimes the plan is preconceived, sometimes it follows the preparation and accumulation of the raw material. Free access to the edifice of science is not only allowed to those who devised the plan, worked out the detailed drawings, prepared the materials, or piled up the brickwork, but also to all those who are desirous of making a close acquaintance with the plan, and wish to avoid dwelling in the vaults or in the garrets where the useless lumber is stored.
Knowing how contented, free, and joyful is life in the realm of science, one fervently wishes that many would enter its portals.
To an initiate of the Craft, the above expression might well be a quotation from one of Masonry's memorable and estimable rituals. The symbolism is indeed apt.
Most impressive to the mind of the perceptive and discerning Mason are the profound words of H. Rider Haggard:
Since to all the Brood of Earth Death hands his poppy-flowers, he indeed is happy to whom there is occasion given to weave them in a crown of glory. (Cleopatra, Book 1, Chap. 7.)
Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytical geometry, calculus, and a number of branches of so-called advanced or higher mathematics are the essential tools used to solve problems. But the tools cannot be used unless analysis is first applied to the problems. Any problem must initially be analyzed to determine the factors constituting the problem, the elements to be disposed of toward a solution, and then how to actually achieve a solution. Analysis indicates which tools to use and how to use them in solving the problem.
Analysis is the most important aspect of mathematics. Anybody can learn to use the tools, but unless he understands and learns analysis, he will never be able to solve problems, even the simplest ones.
There is always a considerable body of mathematicians who are devoting themselves to research and advance in abstract or pure mathematics. On the other hand, the number of engineers and scientists employed in endeavors requiring mathematical ability are working with applied mathematics. The growth of need for applied mathematics becomes evident when specific time by calendar date is considered alongside industrial growth. The beginning of the 20th century is a good reference point.
Shortly after the turn of the century the airplane and automobile were established. About the same time water, electricity, and gas were installed in the home. These technical changes altered and complicated the world greatly. Electronics, presaged by the audion or vacuum tube, appeared in the very early '20s and expanded impressively during the next decade into radio, television, and computers. By the late '50s electronics and computers had been revolutionized by the transistor and other developments and inventions.
Between 1910 and 1950, in this country the number of skilled workers escalated from 4,364,000 to 7,632,000; while the semiskilled workers doubled, increasing from 5,500,000 to 11,000,000. In 1910 there were only 60,000 engineers in all of the United States; only one out of every 621 persons working was an engineer, which today isn't considered very many. But by 1950 the number of engineers had increased to 400,000, or one out of every 139 persons working was an engineer.
On a time scale of one year representing a million years of civilization's growth and development, the noted physicist Arthur H. Compton compiled the following Time Table specifying historic steps in the advance of engineering, invention, and science:
1. One year ago - sticks and stones were used as tools and weapons.
2. Last week - stones were shaped to meet special needs.
5. Last midnight - Rome fell, hiding values of civilized life for several hours.
6. By 10 o'clock this morning - the first practical steamboat was being built.
9. At 11:40 o'clock - X-ray was discovered, followed quickly by radium and wireless telegraphy.
10. Fifteen minutes ago - the automobile came into use.
11. Five minutes ago - air mail was first carried.
12. One minute ago - the first worldwide short-wave broadcast occurred.
Our life today differs from that of our grandfathers much more than did theirs from life 2,000 years ago. Mathematical inventions, discoveries, and developments have held their own in the advance of man's culture and achievement throughout those centuries.
References
1. H.P.H. Bromwell, Restorations of Masonic Geometry and Symbolry, Being a Dissertation on the Lost Knowledges of the Lodge; The Henry P.H. Bromwell Masonic Publishing Co., Denver, Colorado, 1905, 560pp.
2. Bertrand Russell, Mysticism and Logic; W,W. Norton & Co., Inc. New York, 1929. 234pp.
3. Alfred North Whitehead, Essays in Science and Philosophy; Philosophical Library, New York, 1948, 255pp.
4. A.N. Whitehead, An Introduction to Mathematics; Oxford University Press, New York, 1948, 191pp. First published in 1911.
5. E.T. Bell, The Queen of the Sciences; Williams & Wilkins Co. in cooperation with the Century of Progress Exposition, Baltimore, Md., 1931, 138pp.
6. Eric Temple Bell, the Search for Truth; Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Md., 1934, 279pp.
7. Eric Temple Bell, The Handmaiden of the Sciences; Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Md., 1937, 216pp.
8. Norman A. Crowder and Grace C. Martin, Adventures in Algebra, Doubleday & Co., Inc., Garden City, NY, 1960, 350pp.
9. E.C. Titchmarsh, Mathematics for the General Reader; Doubleday & Co., Inc., Garden City, NY, 1959, 197pp.
10. Karl Menninger, Number Words and Number Symbols, A Cultural History of Numbers, translated by Paul Broneer from revised German edition (1958); The M.l.T. Press, Cambridge, MA, July 1970, 480pp.
11. Robert Lawlor, Sacred Geometry, philosophy and practice; Crossroad Publishing Co., New York, 1982, 112pp.
12. Eric Temple Bell, Mathematics, Queen and Servant of Science; McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1951, 437pp.
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The Origins and Correct Usages of The Sign of Fidelity
by Steven T. Pocock, MPS
Brethren, during the early part of last year (1987) it was learned that among the former District Deputies' concerns was the proper use of the Sign of Fidelity - where, when, and how frequently this sign should, or should not, apply. We all know that a lodge's procedure is as personal as the customs and traditions it each inherits, and that eventually each lodge's procedure is accepted as 'customary'. However, unlike the book of Work, not all customs and traditions are written down, nor are they always acceptable. What is, and has been, customary in one lodge is not necessarily regarded as a custom in another, and the authenticity of some of these customs is either questionable or without foundation.
Before we continue, I would like to pose these questions [to the lodge]: how many times, under what circumstances, and on what occasions, can the Sign of Fidelity officially be used in lodges The answers to each of these questions can be found in our own Grand Lodge's publications and also its book of Work; but what I believe you will find alarming, and, I trust, equally as interesting, are the number of occasions when the sign itself should not be used.
There is little historical evidence available concerning the Canadian custom and tradition of the Sign of Fidelity. Therefore, assuming that we accept the basis of our Work and Constitution as English in its origin, I turned the direction of my "researches" towards a few English Masonic publications where I discovered this topic had already been discussed in great detail.
We should not forget that English Masonic customs are as prone to deviation as our own; likewise, verbal directives, either from District Deputies - even Grand Masters - are not always adhered to, least of all remembered! Directives, too, suffer from that awful Masonic disease of 'deviation'. The problem of deviation is evident in some English lodges where the brethren sometimes feel compelled to use two signs - the Sign of Fidelity and the Sign of Reverence - for the same purpose. These signs are similar but with a distinct difference: when giving the Sign of Fidelity the Brethren display the thumb, when using the Sign of Reverence the thumb is concealed. Also, the Sign of Fidelity is 'authorized' and has its own place in Masonic history, whereas the Sign of Reverence cannot be traced 'historically'. Nor is the Sign of Reverence sanctioned by the Grand Lodge of England whose brethren, like our own in Canada, make as many "innovations in the body of Freemasonry", and changes in the ritual, as ourselves.
The source of these signs' origins, and their misuse, was covered by the late Wor. Bro. Harry Carr in his book, The Freemason at Work, where he, too, answered a Brother's question concerning these signs. Apparently, some of our English brethren stand at the sign of Reverence during the Obligation in the First Degree and assume the posture of the Sign of Fidelity in the Second and the Third Degree. The Brother who questioned Wor. Bro. Carr felt that this arrangement was "in order, as it was pointed out that the Entered Apprentices would not know the Sign of Fidelity" anyway (258), and he continues by asking, which "sign is given in the Closing Ceremony, when [their] Immediate Past Master recites 'Fidelity, Fidelity, Fidelity"'?
Bro. Carr's response is to discount the use of the Sign of Reverence as having no place in the ritual, because neither is it a sign of recognition, nor is it ever 'entrusted' to a candidate during the Degree work. The Sign of Fidelity, however, is mentioned in Prichard's exposure of 1730 with the right hand noted as being in the "customary place"...no mention is made of either fingers or digits. Prichard also indicated that the Sign of Fidelity was once the posture of the Wardens when the Wor. Master asked them their respective positions in the lodge during the Closing. Bro. Carr concedes that this posture might have been a mark of respect, but, "still no mention of digits."
From 1740 onwards "there is ample evidence that the modern 'squared' form has been adopted. No reason or explanation is given, but now the thumb is specifically mentioned in almost every Craft ritual that survives" (258). In one of these 'surviving rituals', "A Dialogue Between Simon and Phillip", its author states that the Wardens stand at the Sign of Fidelity 'generally' and that "this squared sign is always used 'when addressing the Worshipful"'. Bro. Carr translates this posture, also, as a sign of respect.
Wor. Bro. Carr continues his discussion by assuming that although "the earliest mention of the sign made no reference to digits, the 'squared' position has been established practice in England for well over 200 years, and the same sign was certainly in use in France and England during portions of other ceremonies": during the Opening and Closing and when addressing the Worshipful Master" (259). The sign seemed "to have served a dual purpose": as a mode of recognition and as a mark of respect.
Bro. Carr presumed, and perhaps quite rightly, that the use of the Sign of Fidelity as a mark of respect was adopted in some lodges as
"a general posture for all Brethren during Prayers and Obligations, and in that case it was probably modified (in the 19th century) by the 'loss of a digit' simply to draw a distinction between the postures for different parts of the proceedings" (259).
In reply to the Brother's question, "What sign is given when we utter Fidelity, Fidelity, Fidelity?", Bro. Carr remarks that "whatever sign is given, I am convinced...it ought to be the posture or Sign of Fidelity." Is it correct, then, to give the Sign of Fidelity in the presence of an Entered Apprentice? Bro. Carr feels that the Entered Apprentice should accept this sign as a 'custom' of Freemasonry and that only later will he discover its true meaning. In his answer to the question of whether it is correct to make, or give, a Masonic sign after the lodge has been closed, Bro. Carr suggests we should first ask, 'When is the lodge actually open?' The answer, 'Not until the V.S.L. has been opened'; therefore, the lodge is not closed until the V.S.L. is closed. In which case, Bro. Carr suggests that for those who are concerned about giving the sign of F.F.F. after the lodge is closed the Chaplain (or whoever has been chosen to close the Volume) could lay his hand on the open V.S.L. and announce, "Brethren, nothing now remains etc; ...F.F.F." and then close the book. If there is anyone [here] who is really concerned about the correctness of Bro. Carr's suggestion, consider this: if we use a sign after the lodge has been closed what should we do when, in the Opening of the lodge, all the Brethren prove that "none but Masons are present" before the lodge is opened! We come to order as directed by the Wor. Master, yet, the book of Work states quite clearly that "No signs are given until the V.S.L. has been opened. " Either through custom, habit, or just plain forge/fullness, some of our Brethren, when directed by the Wor. Master to "Stand easy", inappropriately complete the penal sign.
Let us now consider when the Sign of Fidelity should be given in our own lodges and under what circumstances. The Grand Lodge of Canada in the Province of Ontario's publication of Meeting The Challenge is quite specific regarding this matter (85, Directive No. 8): "The S of F. is used in the following circumstances: prayers, obligations, closing the V.S.L., F.F.F. in Closing the lodge, and (by the S.W. only) in presenting the candidate." However, there is another occasion when this sign is used that is not described in "Meeting The Challenge." During the Installation ceremony, the Wor. Master Elect is asked to assent to the Ancient Charges by bowing his head and "signifying with the Sign of Fidelity." All of these examples can be found, respectively, in either the book of "Work", "Meeting The Challenge", or the "Handbook For The Ceremony Of Installation"; thus, officially, any other time a Brother uses the Sign of Fidelity is incorrect...tradition or no tradition. For those of you who might violently disagree, all arguments, Brethren, can be taken up with the Custodian of the Work...if you dare!
What, then, are considered the improper occasions when the Sign of Fidelity should not be used in a lodge? Practically all occasions, Brethren, unless they are sanctioned by Grand Lodge or specified in the book of Work. For instance, the ritual clearly states when the penal signs should be used: as a sign of salutation; when entering or leaving a lodge, or when addressing the Wor. Master. The next time a ballot is taken in your lodge watch closely, Brethren, to see how many members, after casting their ballot, salute the East with either a penal sign or the Sign of Fidelity; officially, neither sign should be used. Also, from his position in the East, the Wor. Master is never required to acknowledge anybody with the Sign of Fidelity on any occasion.
It is evident that our Masonic customs and traditions are so entrenched that it is only on rare occasions we discover Usages never intended. When we hear a Wor. Master Elect subscribe "never to make any innovations in the body of Freemasonry", we might remember that as Master Masons we, too, acknowledged a similar Charge in the Third degree: "The ancient Landmarks of the Order you are to preserve sacred and inviolable, and never suffer an infringement of our customs, or a deviation from established usage."
It is our duty to continue our customs and traditions (whatever we think they might be), but, at the same time, we should not feel offended if we are found to have been in error. The misuse of the Sign of Fidelity is only one example of a "deviation [of] established usage." Surely we would express our concern if we heard a Wor. Master deliver an incorrect Obligation...or omit it completely from the ritual! But what if the same Wor. Master repeated this deviation on future occasions? If his error was never corrected Freemasonry would suffer yet another "innovation" in its workings. Absurd as this example may appear, it is, however, precisely in this manner that change occurs.
If we should ever doubt the correctness of our ceremonies or the ritual's performance, we need look no further for direction than either the book of Work or the telephone directory. In the book of Work you will find the directions written for you in black and white; in the directory, a correctly located 'phone number will connect you with the guardian of these "Landmarks." Personally, I felt much better having consulted both sources.
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by Allen E. Roberts, FPS
Grand Master (and Reverend) Howard L. Woods of the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Arkansas would like to see more cooperation among the Prince Hall Grand Lodges and the Caucasian counterparts. He puts it this way: "Grand Masters (Prince Hall) do not want any integration as such among the jurisdictions, for we each walk a different path toward the same goal. What I personally would like to see is more meetings like the Phylaxis meetings with you and Jerry (Marsengill) and others like you that have a greater depth of feeling for Freemasonry. Once that feeling is attained, you 'become one with the universe' where there is no color or any other vain distinction that would separate men from each other. Kind of Utopian, but this I believe." In an organization that is nothing without Brotherly Love, shouldn't this become a reality rather than "Utopian"?
The Grand Lodge Bulletin of Iowa reports on a speech presented by Norman Vincent Peale in Cedar Rapids on February 21, 1988. Speaking of criticism of Freemasonry, Dr. Peale said: "That doesn't bother me at all because the criticisms aren't founded on reality, the critics know nothing about which they speak. I would like to make a prophecy that Freemasonry will be here 1,000 years from now, and Freemasonry is composed of the finest God-fearing, moral men I have ever known in my life." He strongly suggested that problems are necessary; that only those confined permanently to cemeteries are free of them. He concluded: "...so, if people attack Masonry, always remember nobody kicks a dead horse. It's a sign of life, vitality, strength. Just keep on being Freemasons as we've always known it and the problem will take care of itself." That wisdom is going to be difficult to top!
Question: How can the Scottish Rite Bodies and the Imperial Council of the Shrine make an honorary member of a nonMason? Isn't membership in the Scottish Rite predicated on a man being a Master Mason in good standing? Isn't membership in the Shrine (at least for the moment) reserved for members of the Scottish Rite and/or Commandery? Isn't it still necessary for a man to be a Master Mason to petition those bodies? According to The Wisconsin Masonic Journal: "In a private ceremony in the Oval Office, United States President Ronald (W.) Reagan (a non-Mason) received Honorary Membership in the Imperial Council of the Shrine of North America and Honorary Scottish Rite Membership." Does this flout Masonic law? "A certificate of honor was also presented the President from the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Masons, District of Columbia," the report added. This was perfectly legal. Reagan said, according to the report, "he had long admired Masonry's charitable and philanthropic programs. " Good - the President's comments - not the action of the appendant bodies.
This episode was a topic of discussion in DC during the meetings of the Allied Masonic Bodies. An official of the Grand Lodge of DC was asked why the problem wasn't solved by making Reagan a Mason at-Sight." Two reasons were cited: there wasn't enough time (malarkey! How many minutes does it take to set aside the law?); DC didn't want to start another war with the Grand Lodge of California. This recalled the heated discussion that ensued when the Grand Lodge of New Jersey made Danny Thomas a "Mason-at-Sight." Under the exclusive jurisdiction nonsense practiced only in the United States, this may have some validity. Don't have enough room to comment further.
Robert A. Kleindienst, MPS, in his final article as Grand Master, wrote for the Arizona Mason: "Robert Frost, in his poem, 'The Mending Wall', has the old Farmer saying, "Before I build I would ask to know what I was walling in, or walling out."... Perhaps we should ask the churches what they are walling in or walling out. There appears to be an attempt to wall out freedom of thought and choice and wall in the [church] membership so as to avoid influences outside of itself. I believe the Fraternity is used by those who condemn it as a convenient smoke screen; as a means to divert attention from the real problems faced by the churches." Reminiscent of the communist masterpiece - the "Berlin Wall?" Could it be that Freemasonry is used as a whipping boy because it rarely (if ever) answers its critics?
It was suggested during the Midwest Conference on Masonic Education in May that the Masonic leadership stop reinventing the wheel. This was invented during the "New Dark Ages," over 12,000 years ago. The wheel should be improved upon, as it has been in industry. For a half century or more Masonic Conferences have been held with the same "improvements" being created over and over again. This wastes time, money and resources. A solution? Set up a "clearing house" where the proposals and results of all Conferences can be catalogued and indexed then made available to all who are interested. This could go a long way toward improving the wheel.
Solicitation was among the topics discussed at the Northeast Conference on Masonic Education and Libraries. The consensus appeared to be that open solicitation of members would not solve Freemasonry's problems. It appears, however, there has been some form of solicitation practiced for years. It was also noted that we have several excellent Masonic libraries, but their "tools" aren't being used. Items in the June issue of The Philalethes about the down-grading in our educational systems explains why our country is on the road to deeper ignorance.
On how many occasions we have heard our leaders say that there are no 'higher degrees than the three symbolic degrees?" wrote Grand Master A. Ray Earwood in the Masonic Messenger of Georgia. "On the other occasions we are told that the Grand Lodge of Georgia is the ultimate Masonic authority. These things sound great, but when faced with the realities of today, this question must be asked: If there are no 'higher degrees than the first three, why has the symbolic...Lodge...been allowed to become the least respected and most ignored of all the bodies of Masonry? Could it be our Masonic leaders are only paying 'lip service' to the status of the three degrees? Could it be that, in too many cases, brethren who hold positions of leadership and trust in Grand Lodge owe their allegiance to appendant bodies in which they hold or held similar or other positions?" He said he knows these questions are too often answered in the affirmative, but trusts this will change. So do .